ly, we think, allowed enough for the influ- jure the nation more than it would benefit ences which will restrain this inordinate the working man. waste of new land. He indicates, indeed, the new regions into which emigration may be diverted, but he passes over without mention several economic principles which will act as an ever increasing attraction towards, instead of from, the centres of population. One of these, perhaps the strongest of all, is the increase of local demand for agricultural produce, an increase which tends to make the lands round great cities mines of wealth, and to compel a minute Still, a term even of fifty years is little in the lifetime of a nation, and Mr. Pearson has done a great service in calling attention to the fact that free emigration for ever is not a wise hypothesis on which to found any social system; that one day, for example, we shall be face to face with a walled-in Ireland, and shall have to deal with the problem of pauperism unaided by its most efficient palliative. One day, a day which most of us will live to see, the vast movement of and scientific cultivation of those lands such Europe towards America, a movement beas can be accomplished only by a very thick fore which every other fades into nothing, population. When an acre near Philadel-must cease, and Europe may have to face phia yields a £100 a year, the desire to pos- the grand problem of a population incessess acres near Philadelphia will be stronger santly increasing its numbers without inthan the desire for the freer and rougher life creasing the area of its soil. We do not of the Western farmer. Wages will be paid there which will enrich the labourer more quickly than his own independent toil, and at least half mankind would rather have high wages than face the risks involved in independence. Another and strong palliative will be the improvement of cultivation. At present, as Mr. Pearson admits, it pays a man to "work out" his land and buy another block, or to cultivate very badly a large area of soil; but the instant land has a real value, or is even going to have a real value, the speculator will step in, and the farmer will find that nomad farming has altogether ceased to pay. He must make his land yield more, as we do, by manure and care. The effect believe, as the Malthusians do, that the problem is a dangerous one, - though we have had one sickening example that it is possible for a modern race to produce too little food to keep itself alive, - for we have lost confidence neither in the protection of God nor the energy of man; but of all speculative propositions in politics, this is one of the nearest and most serious and the least considered. The American people acts as if its soil were elastic; we act as if emigration would for ever carry off the energetic and the discontented. We may as practical politicians be right, for it is useless to arrange a national policy upon the contingencies of even thirty years; but it is of this change will be enormous in restrict- useful now and then to be reminded of those ing the demand for more distant lands; and so will the sure development of manufactures in a country where the coal-beds cover kingdoms, extend, as Mr. Pearson says, over an area six-fold that of the European beds. With all these powerful causes at work, with Canada still unoccupied and the Southern States unpeopled, with Mexico to conquer and the West to fill with manufactures, we can hardly accept Mr. Pearson's conjecture as to the time when emigration to the United States will cease to be a habit. It is certain, however, that he is in accord with many of the most eminent thinkers of the Union, and with a popular instinct which in several States, notably in Massachusetts, has manifested itself once or twice already with extreme violence, and which may before long create a party firmly opposed to immigration. Unless we misread American politics, such a party already exists in the contingencies, to be called occasionally to consider questions larger and more complicated than those to which partizans are devoting all their thoughts. The fate of the Irish Church is a great subject; but what if Mr. Pearson is right, and Ireland within ten years may be walled in? From The Spectator. ANIMAL REVERENCE. THE Victoria Institute, which is a London theological debating society, not a little frequented by the clergy, has been attempting to define the distinction between the lower animals and man, without, as far as we can see, being very successful. Of course, the old attempt to distinguish between instinct and reason was tried, and defeated by the ingenious arguments of more than one gentleman. The orthodox Eastern States, is kept down mainly by the view of instinct is that it is a wholly irranecessity of conciliating the West, and com- tional sort of impulse, which accomplishes pels the Protectionist leaders every now its great results quite blindly under the and then to argue most seriously and in guidance of a higher power, and in defence public that a check to immigration would in- of this view the old story of a tame beaver ecuted, and are not even intended for other from the lower animals by his possession of persons to study, or a scholar in prison an intelligence different in kind from theirs building a dam in a room with tables and brushes, and so forth, was related. To this argument no one seems to have given the answer that the most intellectual man is often found to do equally useless and inapplicable things, from inherited habit, without its being inferred that the inherited habit has never had any sort of intellectual origin. When a posthumous child imitates, as it often does, the mannerisms of a parent it has never seen, we do not argue that those mannerisms cannot have had, in that parent, a rational origin. Nor do we argue the same thing in the case of any habit prolonged after its use has disappeared. When an orator in the decline of life cannot refrain from addressing eloquent speeches to his turnips, or an architect from making models of buildings that can never be ex man civilization. The setter who bribed the sheep-dog by the voluntary sacrifice of some of his dinner bones, to assist in catching the game that the setter indicated, must have divined something of the power of co-operation, and division of labour, and deliberately applied capital (the " saved wages of labour") to this very remunerative investment in the sheep-dog's labour. Whatever be the definition of instinct, and the certainty that many of the most apparently sagacious animals do things quite over the head of not only their rational powers, but ours, it seems to us certain that very many of the lower animals do adapt means consciously to ends, though not after a very elaborate fashion, and are, therefore, rationally as well as instinctively, constructive. The attempt to divide man sharply turns nursery rhymes into Greek or Latin hexameters, without the slightest intention of either amusing or teaching any one but himself, an external intelligence watching these men without seeing into their minds, might very plausibly say that they were doing just what the tame beaver does when he builds his dam of tables and brushes in a dry room, - doing from "blind instinct" what he had no rational pretence for doing; and such an observer might fairly enough add that this demonstrates the fact that the original speeches, architectural efforts, and Latin and Greek verses, were composed by instinct, without any mastery of the rational laws. involved. And such an inference would, as we know, be certainly mistaken. We do not see that the tame beaver really proves anything except that in his case he was building from hereditary habit, displaying an inherited trick of manner, as we might say; but how far the origin of that hereditary habit, of that inherited trick of manner, might have been rational or otherwise, i. e., a conscious adaptation of seems to us certainly a failure. No one can pretend for an instant that the famous Fire Brigade dog which used to give the alarm of fire, to run up the ladder into a burning house, to bark so as to guide his master through the thickest of the smoke to the place of egress, to give notice when there were living people shut up in a state of suffocation, whom the firemen would have missed, by barking violently at the door of their rooms, and, in short, to cooperate most effectually, not only in the general, but the special measures for bringing individual relief in the case of dangerous fires, - no one, we say, can pretend for an instant that this dog did not bring as clear a reason to work (in aid of the acute instinctive smell, for instance, which he possessed), as the firemen themselves. Unquestionably, the attempt to make the distinction between instinct and intelligence the main distinction between the lower animals and man is a mistake. The gentlemen of the Victoria Institute appeared more or less sensible of this diffi means to ends, or a mere blind instrumen-culty, and some of them proposed, in the tality, the story does not in any degree tend to show. On the other hand, the cases adduced of animals adapting themselves to new emergencies, the capacity to deal with which could not possibly have been inherited, do seem to show a real element of reason in the matter. The bees which found out an uninhabited hive and gave in place of this distinction, to make the characteristic distinction between the lower animal and man the want in the former, and the presence in the latter, of a faculty of reverence. Here, we imagine, the theologians of the Institute got nearer to a characteristic distinction. But even here they failed to express it in the most characteristic formation to the Queen Bee, who never form. The great leading fact of domestileaves the hive but twice in her life, in cation is the unquestionable reverence of early infancy, and on occasion of her head- the higher domesticated animals for the ing a swarm, - which caused her to lead human beings whom they accept as their them into possession of that hive, must masters. The dog at Edinburgh which has have exercised many of the faculties sup- for eight years slept on the grave of its posed to be peculiar to the pioneers of hu-master, and has refused to sleep anywhere کر else, can scarcely be denied a kind of fidel- him, indeed, of his still greater power to ity to that master's memory which deserves determine generally the whole destiny of to be termed reverence. The "instinct- his own life. Hence the reverence of the ive" school would, we suppose, make this lower animal for man is like the reverence of at first a mere matter of physical instinct, the savage for the civilized man when first leading the dog to the place where it found he beholds his great resource in the arts of most trace of its master's body, and afterwards a result of habit. But as a matter of fact, no creatures are less victims of habit than dogs. They go from place to place with their masters with nothing but delight in the change, and the difficulty would have been, had the master been living, to get the dog to sleep for eight years in any one place unless his master bad slept there too. We can only properly account for this extraordinary case of a truly spiritual attachment to the memory of a master, by supposing that the dog can really recall, or, rather, has never forgotten its own intense love, and respect, and regret for him, and feels the grave more closely associated with these feelings of love, and respect, and regret than any other place within its reach. That dogs really reverence their masters, and do so even in the absence of their bodily presence, and after very long absence, seems to us absolutely certain. And the same thing is more or less true of other war and peace - not so much moral reverence, as that sense of physical inferiority and dependence which, when met with generous treatment, often results in the deepest affection. As far as we know, the lower animals, though they show plenty of trace of reverence in this vaguer sense, show none of that reverence which we yield to those who are better than ourselves simply because they are better. Lord Bacon long ago remarked that dogs have a religion, and that their gods are their masters. But then this is the sort of religious reverence paid by a savage to a man with a gun, or a voltaic battery, or an electric telegraph, or anything he cannot understand, when combined with the feeling of gratitude and love which the latter's kindness may inspire. But the dog shows no sign of self-reproach, of looking for a higher moral ideal than itself, of probing the purity of its own motives, and shrinking before the spirit which teaches the higher grades of nobility it has domesticated animals, especially the horse never reached. In short, moral reverence and the elephant. Nay, it seems certain is, no doubt, beyond the reach of the lower that all the higher gregarious animals rever- animals, simply because this rests upon a ence their own leaders, - the herds of ele-conscious comparison of the conflicting phants especially showing implicit confi- principles by which life can be regulated, a dence in the directions of their leaders. discovery that some of these are higher Any man with several dogs will notice that than others, and a further discovery that a sort of hero-worship grows up amongst there are beings whose lives show far more them, the small dogs usually fixing their of the higher and less of the lower than our admiration on the larger dogs, and bestowing a good deal of the most disinterested respect and reverence upon them. A terrier of our acquaintance always rushes to meet a large retriever (of her own sex) when they first meet in the morning, with own. We should say that this is beyond the range of the highest animal life, because a conscious reflection on the motives and springs of action has never yet been reached at all by any mere animal, -not even by the lowest tribes of the human species itthe deepest signs of devotion. If the re- self. Here, again, the distinction, though triever is tied up, the terrier will never be complete for the purpose of excluding the easy till she has obtained the release of her lower animals, doubtless does more, exlarge friend, and caresses the latter on her cludes also the lowest tribes of human release with an effusion that makes the re-beings themselves. The kind of reverence triever quite bashful and ashamed. Here which we have claimed even for domesti is a genuine case of reverence as between dog and dog. The same quality in a far higher degree holds between dog and man. But then animal reverence is always founded, we believe, on the admiration felt for external qualities, which the lower animals can more or less appreciate, like size, speed, courage, resource, and protecting power. The dog defends the man; but none the less he feels in a larger sense dependent on the man, and is aware of the man's power to control, punish, or reward cated animals passes no doubt very gradually and by almost insensible shades into that phase of moral comparison and reflecetion which is the source of all true worship. But the knowledge of the comparative worth of different motives, and the sense of shame which accompanies the complete predominance of the lowest motives, though peculiar to man, is not common, we imagine, to all the beings who are capable of becoming men in this higher sense. We suspect it is true that many domestic animals, though they have less of moral capacity in them than the lowest human animals, - the bushmen, for example, - have more of actual reverence, more of the humaner qualities of disinterested love and devotion, in short, more civilization, though less capability of civilization. The highest range reached in case the continuous existence of the town was not interrupted, and in either case an ancient Gaulish name, either of the town itself or of the tribe, remains to this day. Next, under the Roman domination a new element comes in, destined to be as lasting as the other. Christianity is preached at the world of the lower animal life overlaps an early time, converts are found, persecuthe lowest reached by man, the difference tion follows, some saintly and martyred being, however, that the former is incapable of cultivation beyond a certain point, owing to the absence of any adequate means of accumulating the results of past experience, while the latter is capable of cultivation far beyond the point at which the former stops. Still, as a matter of actual attainment, as distinguished from the capacity for future development, no doubt the highest class of animals surpass the lowest tribes which deserve the name of man. From The Saturday Review. ENGLISH AND FRENCH CITIES. Bishop connects his name for ever with the city. As Christianity becomes the recognised faith of the Empire, the local Church emerges from its obscurity and obtains a position which it was never destined to lose. Except when it has been tampered with by recent changes, the episcopal succession in a French city has gone on uninterruptedly since the third or fourth century; the present cathedral stands on the site of a church of those primitive times; the extent of the diocese marks the extent of the Roman civil division of which the city was the head. Then came the Teutonic inroads, those of the Franks in the north, those of the Goths and Burgundians in the south. The connexion with the seat of Empire, We know not how far any one's national with Rome Old or New, first became nomivanity is at all troubled by the thought, nal and then was wiped out altogether, till which must present itself to any one who the day when the Roman diadem was set goes through any considerable part of Eng- on the brow of a Frankish King. But the land and France with his eyes open, that Gaulish hill-fortress, the Roman city, lived there is hardly any city in England which through the storm. It remained a seat of can trace the same unbroken historical ex- habitation and of dominion; it retained its istence which can be traced by nearly every name, its position as the head of a district, French town that can boast of enough of in the south it even retained large traces early importance to have been the seat of of its Roman municipal organization. Above an ancient Bishopric. The history of a all, it retained its character as a seat of great number of French towns follows a spiritual rule, the seat of a chief church and single type. The site has been a place of its chief pastor. The cities of Gaul have human habitation, and the centre of a more lived on uninterruptedly from the days of or less organized society, as far back as Sextius and Cæsar till now. The episcopal history or trustworthy tradition can take us. churches of Gaul lived on uninterruptedly It was a post, most usually a fortress over- from the days of primitive Christendom looking a river, which formed the strong- to the great Revolution. And with most hold, the capital, if we may so call it, of a of them the great Revolution itself was only Gaulish tribe. From those times till now a passing eclipse. The chief towns of it has never ceased to be, in one form or France, in short, are places which have been another, a seat of habitation and of domin- abodes of man, seats of man's industry and ion. The Gaulish hill-fort became the Ro- government such as industry and governman town. It was fenced about with Ro-ment, have been at various times, for man walls, and it received a Roman mu- eighteen hundred or two thousand years, and nicipal constitution, In the South it re- for as many more prehistoric centuries as any tained, and still retains, its original ante- one chooses to add. Dynasties, governments, Roman name. Burdigala and Tolosa keep nations, languages, all have changed; but to this day, with but slight changes, the to this day the chief fort of each tribe overnames which they have borne from the be-run by Cæsar commonly remains the cathe ginning of things. In the North the name of the town was most commonly forgotten; it was supplanted by the name of the tribe. Lutetia Parisiorum, the town of the tribe of the Parisii, retains, as Paris, not its own name but that of its inhabitants. In either dral city of a diocese, and is often also the capital of an ancient province or a modern department. Now this is the history, not of one or two cities only, but of a whole class. When any place of any importance deviates from else, can scarcely be denied a kind of fidel- him, indeed, of his still greater power to ity to that master's memory which deserves determine generally the whole destiny of to be termed reverence. The instinct- his own life. Hence the reverence of the ive" school would, we suppose, make this lower animal for man is like the reverence of at first a mere matter of physical instinct, the savage for the civilized man when first leading the dog to the place where it found he beholds his great resource in the arts of most trace of its master's body, and after- war and peace-not so much moral reverwards a result of habit. But as a matter ence, as that sense of physical inferiority of fact, no creatures are less victims of and dependence which, when met with genhabit than dogs. They go from place to erous treatment, often results in the deepplace with their masters with nothing but est affection. As far as we know, the delight in the change, and the difficulty lower animals, though they show plenty of would have been, had the master been living, trace of reverence in this vaguer sense, to get the dog to sleep for eight years in show none of that reverence which we yield any one place unless his master bad slept to those who are better than ourselves simthere too. We can only properly account ply because they are better. Lord Bacon for this extraordinary case of a truly spirit- long ago remarked that dogs have a religion, ual attachment to the memory of a master, and that their gods are their masters. But by supposing that the dog can really recall, then this is the sort of religious reverence or, rather, has never forgotten its own in- paid by a savage to a man with a gun, or a tense love, and respect, and regret for him, voltaic battery, or an electric telegraph, or and feels the grave more closely associated anything he cannot understand, when comwith these feelings of love, and respect, and bined with the feeling of gratitude and love regret than any other place within its reach. which the latter's kindness may inspire. That dogs really reverence their masters, But the dog shows no sign of self-reproach, and do so even in the absence of their bod- of looking for a higher moral ideal than itily presence, and after very long absence, self, of probing the purity of its own moseems to us absolutely certain. And the tives, and shrinking before the spirit which same thing is more or less true of other teaches the higher grades of nobility it has domesticated animals, especially the horse never reached. In short, moral reverence and the elephant. Nay, it seems certain is, no doubt, beyond the reach of the lower that all the higher gregarious animals rever- animals, simply because this rests upon a ence their own leaders, the herds of ele-conscious comparison of the conflicting phants especially showing implicit confi- principles by which life can be regulated, a dence in the directions of their leaders. discovery that some of these are higher Any man with several dogs will notice that than others, and a further discovery that a sort of hero-worship grows up amongst there are beings whose lives show far more them, the small dogs usually fixing their of the higher and less of the lower than our admiration on the larger dogs, and bestow-own. We should say that this is beyond ing a good deal of the most disinterested the range of the highest animal life, because respect and reverence upon them. A ter- a conscious reflection on the motives and rier of our acquaintance always rushes to springs of action has never yet been reached meet a large retriever (of her own sex) at all by any mere animal, not even by when they first meet in the morning, with the lowest tribes of the human species itthe deepest signs of devotion. If the re-self. Here, again, the distinction, though triever is tied up, the terrier will never be easy till she has obtained the release of her large friend, and caresses the latter on her release with an effusion that makes the retriever quite bashful and ashamed. Here is a genuine case of reverence as between dog and dog. The same quality in a far higher degree holds between dog and man. But then animal reverence is always founded, we believe, on the admiration felt for external qualities, which the lower animals can more or less appreciate, like size, speed, courage, resource, and protecting power. The dog defends the man; but none the less he feels in a larger sense dependent on the man, and is aware of the man's power to control, punish, or reward complete for the purpose of excluding the lower animals, doubtless does more, excludes also the lowest tribes of human beings themselves. The kind of reverence which we have claimed even for domesticated animals passes no doubt very gradu ally and by almost insensible shades into that phase of moral comparison and refle tion which is the source of all true worship, But the knowledge of the comparative worth of different motives, and the sense of shame which accompanies the complete predomi nance of the lowest motives, though peculiar to man, is not common, we imagine, to all the beings who are capable of becoming men in this higher sense. We suspect it is true that many domestic animals, though |