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unformed. Through experiments carried on with animals and infants John B. Watson has been one of the leaders in this enterprise-it has suggested important modifications in our techniques of child training.

Still another exploration has been in the region of mental measurements. This takes us back to France in the year 1904. In that year a commission was appointed to examine the status of the mentally defective in the schools. It was soon discovered, however, that the work was seriously hampered because of lack of clearness as to what was meant by mental defectiveness. A French psychologist, M. Binet, undertook to clear up this confusion. With remarkable patience, he worked out a scheme of questions and tests, which, being applied to hundreds of thousands of children, finally made possible the detection of what we call the various "mental ages."

The Binet-Simon test was the starting-point of a movement of mental testing which has since become widespread. The movement was advanced from child testing to adult testing during the late war, when American recruits were subjected to the so-called army tests in order that they might be segregated into the proper intelligence groups.

At the present time, controversy rages as to whether these tests discover "original intelligence" or a combination of original and acquired intelligence. Whatever the answer may eventually be, the intelligence test is probably destined to become an increasingly useful tool, which, through discovering grades of intelligence and kinds of aptitudes, will make possible, in education and

industry, wiser selection, placement, and utilization of human beings.

We have mentioned William James as one of the great figures of modern psychology. By his side must be placed G. Stanley Hall, who began his career in 1883 as professor of psychology in Johns Hopkins University. Hall's contribution to American psychology has been exceedingly rich. He was one of the first to link psychology with Darwinism and was also one of the first to bring American psychology into touch with the masters of German psychology-Pfleiderer, Paulsen, Virchow, Helmholtz, Fechner, Wundt, and others. Also, he had the honor of of being the first distinguished psychologist in America to countenance the views of Freud.

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As early as 1883, Hall began to publish articles dealing with child psychology. His interest in that subject was continued throughout a long life, coming to its most noteworthy expression in his volume, "Adolescence." That book, like James's "Principles," was a germinal point in American psychology. of it and around it grew an energy of investigation into the psychology of child and adolescent life that has fairly revolutionized our attitudes toward young people and laid the foundation for thoroughgoing revisions of our parental and educational practices. As a result, child study has taken its place as one of the major concerns of present-day psychology.

Out of the above mentioned studies of instincts, habit-formation, mental measurements, child nature, and adolescent nature, there naturally developed a vigorous new

movement of educational psychology. America has been a leader in this movement. The figure of John Dewey stands preeminent. In Europe there are Decroly, Adler, Cizek, Ferrière, and others. The result has been not only an impressive body of psychological theory regarding education, but an even more impressive series of educational experiments. In all of these, we detect a new note: a confidence in the child and an effort to awaken in him his own creative energies.

Of particular moment, in this connection, has been the study of backward children. America has a large number of educational clinics devoted to the sole end of studying and readjusting children who, for one reason or another, cannot keep up with the pace. In Europe, one of the most important developments has been the work done by Dr. Alfred Adler in Vienna, who, starting with the assumption that no child must be branded as backward, because no child must be permitted to lose his courage, has instituted a reëducation of the teachers of Vienna that is already remarkable in its results.

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Europe and America. In studying the obviously abnormal, they have made discoveries of considerable importance for the rest of us, who are not obviously off the normal, but who nevertheless have psychical maladjustments that hinder our most effective functioning.

The outstanding figure in France has been that of Pierre Janet. Janet has turned his attention chiefly to the study of divided personality. He developed the theory that healthy life requires a certain energy with which to integrate itself. If this energy diminishes, the personality breaks apart. Hence the curative techniques, according to him, must consist both in restoring lost energy and in preventing the unnecessary waste of the psychical energy that is available.

Freud developed a different view. He discovered that the source of disease in his nervously deranged patients was invariably traceable to some psychic shock or misadventure that has since been lost to consciousness. By recovering the consciousness of this forgotten cause, Freud was able to remove the neurosis. From this rather striking discovery he concluded that the cause of neurosis was not a lack of energy, but an abundance of energy in subconscious conflict. Subconscious conflict, then, became the clue to psychological disease, and the removal of such conflict the chief curative measure.

But Freud went further. Not simply conflict in general was at the root of our troubles, but a very special kind of conflict. Freud called it a conflict between all those unorganized and imperious drives

in us that seek, irrespective of consequence, for personal satisfaction, and those requirements of the social life which are necessary for our living together. The imperious drives he summed up in the word Libido; the social requirements he summed up in the word Reality-Principle.

Libido was the word that startled the world. In its more usual expression, sex, it shocked it to its foundations. What was almost equally shocking was the technique of dream interpretation whereby Freud tried to explore the symbolic deliverances of our subconscious selves.

Dr. Alfred Adler, on the other hand, starting with the same assumption of a conflict of inner energies, diverged from Freud in the matter of sex. According to Adler, the basic drive is a drive to power -the wish to be recognized, respected, loved, admired. The greatest conflict ensues when there is engendered a feeling of inferiority. If the inferiority feeling is not overcome, the individual compensates for this in various ways. It may be by way of nervous illness, or tyrannous behavior, or bitter pride, or criminality. According to Adler, then, the clue to the human situation is the understanding and the overcoming of the inferiority feeling. It is in view of this that Adler is so insistent upon the fact that no backward child must be branded as such, and that one of the greatest pedagogical crimes is to make a child repeat a course in school.

Freud seems to hold to a kind of unchangeable given constitution in the individual which is in irreconcilable conflict with a fixed social

environment. Adler, on the other hand, holds that everything depends upon our power to change both the individual and the environment. Thus while Freud is socially conservative, Adler is socially revolutionary; while Freud is relatively uninterested in the problems of nurture and education, Adler finds in nurture and education the chief clue to the entire human situation. While Freud seeks his solution of conflict by individual sublimation, Adler seeks it in a more wholesomely organized home, school, and society.

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The chief work of psychology thus far has been in the regions of what may roughly be called the normal and the subnormal. But another begins to invite, the region of our possible supernormal powers.

As good evolutionists, we must, of course, believe that our present equipment of powers is not at all the last word in psychic outfitting. We are no doubt destined to develop powers of which we now have not the slightest notion. Are some of these supernormal powers already discernible? That is the problem which the young subscience of parapsychology, or metapsychology, as it is variously called, is trying to solve.

The chief problems which have suggested themselves for research have grown out of certain baffling phenomena. There is, first of all, the phenomenon of action at a distance; for example, the moving of a chair or a table when there is apparently no physical intermediary, knocks when there is apparently no knocker in sight. Again there is the equally baffling phenomenon of

sensation at a distance; as for example, the feeling of a pin-prick or a pinch when the body is not in contact with pin or pinching fingers. Again there is the phenomenon of transferring thoughts without the usual intermediary of words or other physical signs. Then, most baffling of all, there is the apparent production of a substance, ectoplasm, as yet unexplained by the physiological sciences. Finally there are the "communications,' delivered either by lips or pencil or other device, and quite without the consciousness of the person or persons communicating.

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These phenomena have been studied with the nearest approach to strict laboratory control in France, by such men as Richet, Geley, Boirac, Joire, Osty, and others. In England and America they have, with the cooperation of the Society for Psychical Research, been studied under far more varying conditions of control.

Those who have been in the thick of the research stoutly maintain the reality of one or all of the foregoing phenomena. They differ, however, in their explanations, some attributing the supernormal manifestations to the influence of departed persons, others attributing them to certain as yet unexplained workings of our own minds, like self-suggestion or group-hypnosis. With the rapid increase of rigorous control and laboratory experimentation, there is every reason to believe that another decade or two will find a new region of human powers opened up to our understanding and use. It must be remembered that it was only a few decades ago that hypnotism was

denounced as charlatanry. To-day it is a highly respectable factor in much of our therapeutic psychologizing.

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There have been other regions of exploration of which we can only make mention. There is, for example, the region of social psychology, in which we find outstanding figures-Tarde, Le Bon, Durkheim, Trotter, Dewey, Hall, Baldwin, Thomas, Mead, Cooley, and many others. The problems in this field have been exceedingly complex; only first beginnings have been made to reduce the huge field to order. What has chiefly resulted from the research has been a fairly new conception of man as a creature of the herd, growing up under herd suggestion and herd compulsion, and forming his standards of life and his loyalties not out of pure reason or out of pure ethical ideality, but chiefly out of the pressure of the herd environment. Social psychology is therefore beginning to lead us to a rather drastic revaluation of our social ideals and objectives.

Another region of exploration has been in the field of religion. James was one of the pioneers in this as in many other regions. His "Varieties of Religious Experience" stimulated a wide interest and led, both in America and Europe, to a re-viewing of the religious problem from a psychological rather than from the accustomed metaphysical angle.

Nor must we fail to mention the very practical work done in the field of industrial psychology and the psychology of advertising. In both of these fields the problem of the psychologist has been to study the

human being as a whole, to note what influences him and how the influence can be exerted. Industrial psychology, in particular, in inducing the employers to study the effect of the working conditions upon the workers, has already been fruitful in introducing a far more wholesome atmosphere into the industrial

world.

At the present day, one of the foremost issues has been raised by the school of Behaviorists. The members of this school frankly challenge all psychology which in any way bases its conclusions upon the belief in a purely "mental" or "inner" life. They therefore discard introspection and trust only to the observation of outward or

physical behavior. This extreme externalism is not only opposed by the traditional introspectionists, who still believe that man has, so to say, an "inside" about which he can speak with some authority, but by a vigorous new school just arising in Germany, called the Gestalt school, which counters Behaviorism on the ground that, through its externalistic approach, it divides up the individual into separate behavior "arcs" and loses count of the essential structural unity which is present in all psychic behavior. At the time of writing the fight goes gaily on, with John Watson the vigorous protagonist of Behaviorism and Koffka and Koehler

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