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cles, and these wounds, he said, 'I therefore argue, that Franciscus Assissi has taken upon himself the sins of the whole world." I said to the pupils, and to the master of our college, after the sermon was finished, "This monk has blasphemed Christ; for Christ bore the sins of mankind, and not Francis cus Assissi. He was a pious and humble man, but yet a sinner, who, like ourselves, must be saved by Christ.'

The style of this book is very peculiar; it would be obvious, from the strangeness of some of the expressions and from the general air of the whole, that the English is not the vernacular tongue of the writer, if his parentage and birth-place were not mentioned. It seems to us that his thorough acquaintance with the Hebrew tongue, and his familiar use of it in conversation, has given something of the idiom of that language to his general style.

MISCELLANY.

proper means, be rendered intelligible to finding knowledge in the mind we shall
it; and what cannot be rendered intelli- first give an account of the introductory da
gible-whether the inability be on the part exercises, with which he would commence
of the instructer or of the scholar-should the instruction of his scholars. The pupils
be postponed to a future period.
are supposed to be seven or eight years of
age. of one held asilejną ji la amed väilsop
In poljembeque sia as of gaites
whole; and descend from decomposition to decom-
Every regular analysis ought to begin by the de
position till the whole subject is fully exhausted.
This rule shall be our perpetual guide.

Pestalozzi described the minds of children as containing within themselves, in miniature, all that they will ever contain; and made the business of education to consist solely in finding and unfolding those principles or truths which are concealed or folded up in the mind. Acting according to this principle, he seldom told a child any thing except the arbitrary name of whatever he had first contrived to find in the mind. In other words, he would give the names of things, as much as possible, subsequently to the knowledge of things. Pestalozzi would not teach any thing dogmatically, but would endeavour by suitable questions to lead the pupil to find out the fact at which he was aiming; and the pupil's finding it by the exercise of his own faculties, he called finding it in the mind of [The system of education introduced by knowledge sought for, was, in reality, althe pupil. It appeared to him. that the Pestalozzi, or rather first practised by him ready in the mind; and he would not admit, upon an extensive scale, has become a sub- when a truth was discovered by any project of considerable interest, both in Europe cess, that it was received from the world and in this country. Its power and ten-without, or from the world within, but that dency recommend it strongly to all whose it was found in the mind, and that it had attention is drawn to it, and who are com- developed or unfolded. existed there before, needing only to be petent to form a correct judgment of the Whether this view be metaphysically cortrue nature and scope of a system that dif-rect or not, its practical effect on his method fers so entirely from those which are sanc-of instruction must obviously be in the hightioned by general use. But there are very the human mind consists of mere receptacles est degree salutary. Others would say, that few works which will give to a general of knowledge, and that the business of edureader an idea of the principles and pro- cation is to fill these, and expand them, by cesses of this system, and we have thought such a gradual process as will enable the the following brief account of it, could not learner to digest and direct to its proper but be interesting to many of our readers, again, would adopt a different theory; but use every truth when it is received. Others,

if not to all.

EDITOR.]

PESTALOZZIAN METHOD OF INSTRUCTION.

THE human mind is so constituted, that by proper use of the knowledge which, at any time, it possesses, it is prepared for the reception of greater quantities and higher degrees of knowledge. The mind is to be led, not compelled, to this advancement. This necessarily implies, that whatever is presented to it should be accommodated to its powers of understanding; otherwise, it will be compelled to believe or assent to what it cannot comprehend, and the memory will be burthened with mere terms and propositions, of which the meaning and use are unknown.

The inductive, analytical, Baconian, or Pestalozzian method of instruction, adopts as a fundamental maxim, that the mind is at all times capable of comprehending those truths, which are then most important for it to receive; and by the acquisition and use of these, it is prepared to receive those which are next in order. Hence it rejects the whole system and practice of dogmatical teaching. Whatever will be useful to the mind at any given period, can, by

The first great and natural division of our body which must, and undoubtedly will, offer itself to our observations, will be its trunk and members. The members we shall, of course, divide into superior,do and inferior limbs. The trunk of the body will be naturally divided into the torsel and head. Thus we shall proceed from division to division. On every part we shall affix a convenient name, and peculiar care will be taken to determine the accurate meaning of every term we shall be obliged to employ.

This first operation will enable my pupils to solve this double problem: an object, or a part of an ob ject, being shown, to name it; and, again, to show the object, or a part of an object, upon hearing its

name.

Our second operation shall consist in determining between too objects, or between a part and the whole the coherency, subordination, connexion, or relation of an object. This operation must enable us to solve problems of the following nature.

tween the nail on the fore-finger of your right hand What coherency or subordination is there beand your body? The answer must, and, of course, will be: The nail on the fore-finger of my right hand is attached to the inferior phalanx of the forefinger of my right hand; the inferior phalanx of the fore-finger of my right hand: the fore-finger of my fore-finger of my right hand constitutes a part of the right hand is a part of my right hand; my right hand belongs to my superior right member, or arm, and my superior right member, or arm, is attached to my body.

betwixt that tree and the middle rib or membrane What connexion or relation do you perceive of this leaf?

The tree comprehends the trunk or stem; the trunk includes the branches; the branches compreleaf, finally, comprehends its middle rib or memhend the twigs, that twig includes this leaf, and this

brane.

instance, we shall examine where the ball of the

aut

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we care little about the different theories,
In our third operation we shall examine the num
provided they all result in the same method ber of things. Our inquiries will, of course, be of
of aiding the mind in the attainment of the following kind: How many toes has the foot of
find and unfold what the mind already pos-are to be found on the human body? What is the
knowledge. What Pestalozzi would do to a man, of a cow, horse, dog, cat, sheep, hog? How
many fingers has the left hand? How many nails**
sesses, might with equal propriety be done number of our incisive teeth? How many horns has **
by another, to lead it by the exercise of its the ox? How many panes of glass has one window,
own powers to receive such truths as it is or all the windows of the room?
now capable of receiving. The same gen- Our fourth operation shall consist in pointing out
eral rules apply to both theories. Nothing the position or situation of an object. Thus, for
should be sought for in the mind, or pre-right eye is situated. We shall, in all likelihood,***
sented to it, but what it can understand find that it is contained in a hole or cavity, com-
clearly and appreciate justly. The previous monly called the eye-socket, beneath the right lid
attainments of the scholar in the science to of the forehead, above the right cheek, on the right
which he is to attend, must be carefully de- side of the upper part of the nose, and on the left
termined; and from the simple ideas which of the middle finger of your right hand?" The mid-
side of the right temple. Which is the position
he now possesses, the instructer should lead dle finger of my right hand is placed beneath the
him by slow and regular advancement to metacarpus of my right hand, and betwixt the fore
the desired elevation in that department;-
connecting others with it from time to time,
and middle finger of the same hand.
that his prospect during his journey may be of that part of your person, which is situated be- ***
These problems we shall not fail to propose in and
inverted order. For instance: What is the name
as extensive as his powers of vision will al-neath the middle of your forehead, above your ups
low, and that as many of the faculties of his per lip, and between your eyes and cheeks?
soul may be exercised, as can be exercised
in any orderly and profitable manner.

abstract principles of this system as our
We have probably given as many of the
readers will have patience to examine. In
order to illustrate Pestalozzi's method of

Our fifth operation shall consist in pointing out # 1 the qualities of objects. What qualities are res ** markable in snow, water, lead, lime, ice, wood, glass, ripe cherries, apples, pears? Which objects dry, humid? What is good, bad, wholeseme, fresh, or bodies are sour, sweet, green, blue, red, yellow, withered, cool, cold? This exercise would evidently

become immense, infinite, if we extended it over all the objects which surround us, and we can come at; and for this very reason we shall be constrained to limit our excursions.

The form or shape of an object is nothing else but a modification or a quality of an object. But this quality being of a peculiar kind, and highly interesting to us, the consideration of the different shapes, under which nature and art present their productions to our eyes, shall form a separate, and consequently our sixth exercise. What is the form of this table, of such a finger, of our heads, of an arm, leg, thigh, eye, nose, tongue? Which bodies are spherical, cylindrical, triangular, circular, conic, prismatic? What object, or what part of such an object, has the form of a bell, a tube, a bottle?

In our seventh operation we shall subject to our examination the different functions which organical bodies and their parts perform. The various

functions performed by our eyes, ears, mouth, tongue, teeth, nose, hands, feet, legs, arms, shoulders, will peculiarly occupy our attention. These observations we shall not forget to extend to the plants, and their parts. My readers must perceive, that in proportion as we advance, our investigations become interesting.

Our eighth exercise will be destined to observe and investigate the use we make, and can make, of the many things which surround us every where. Thus, for instance, we shall attempt to determine, what effects are produced, and may be produced, by the means of a hammer, pen, knife, bellows, scissors, spade, axe, scythe, plough, hoe. We shall point out the use we make, and can make, of iron, steel, silver, gold, copper, ashes, lime, chalk, wood, paper, ink, water, wine; of a table, bed, chair, inkstand, bottle, glass; of pears, apples, peaches, cher ries, bread, meat. It will, probably, not escape our attention, that of many, if not of all things, we can make a good or bad use; and, as this subject is of great importance to us, we shall be likely to expatiate on it at some length. That many things may be preserved in good order, or spoiled through carelessness, are observations which will, of course, occur to our minds. We shall even examine, how a thing, that, through long use or heedlessness, has been spoiled, may be made fit for use again.

your surprise will not only subside, but, I trust,
must entirely vanish.

373

them be sustained as much as possible by vely a high interest in the subject itself on which they are exercised, and as little as the case will admit, by a love of excelling others, by fear of punishment, or hope of reward.

I shall not insist on remarking, how extensi
the foregoing operations will necessarily unfold and
perfect my pupils' natural powers of observing.
examining, analyzing, judging, and speaking; be-
cause those who see clear, will easily perceive it;
whereas the blind will remain blind, were they
lighted by a thousand suns.

To preserve in the mind of the scholar this genuine interest in his studies, there must be more activity, both bodily and menIn proceeding with these exercises, and tal, in his school exercises than is found unall that follow, the golden rule is festina der the common system. He is left to drill lente, hasten slowly. The scholar must and drudge alone, with little of that proper leave nothing behind, but make thorough excitement which is produced by free conwork as far as he goes. It is obvious to re-versation, and by familiar illustrations of mark, that the above lessons might be com- what is learned. Besides this, the studies menced at an earlier age. in our common schools are so mixed and It will be objected, that this method blended, without any reference to their real would require more instructers than the connexion and dependance, and so little present system. This, however, would not time allowed for the daily exercise in any necessarily be the case. It would require, one branch, that there is no time nor opthat the scholars should be of nearly equal portunity given for exciting an interest in age and attainments; but the number of any thing; but the scholar is dismissed with these, to which one instructer could profit- an uncouth variety of incoherent notions, ably attend, might equal that in our com- destitute of order and affinity, and possessmon schools. In all recitations the scholars ing as little tendency to any given point as reply simultaneously or alternately, but each the rays of light reflected from a grater. one frequently undergoes a critical examin-Under the Pestalozzian system all his ination, to determine whether he clearly com- terests are engaged in subjects immediately prehends the exercises which have passed. connected with his studies; and these are When the instructer has reason to suspect so varied, and possess so much of practical that any one of his pupils has been inatten- use and living interest, as to satisfy him tive to the subject of their conversation, or continually with what he is doing, or, at the to the objects which have been presented farthest, with what this is preparing him to for illustrating any subject, or for furnish- do. The studies are so arranged and coning topics for conversation, such pupil has ducted, that the branches already acquired the more questions propounded directly to are almost constantly brought into exercise him. This tends greatly to limit the atten- in attaining the new ones to which the scholar tion of the pupils to their proper duties; is, from time to time, introduced. One of and by having them all on duty at the same his early studies will be arithmetic, another time, little labour is required in governing writing; another, drawing. The use which the school. The length of the exercises he will make of these will appear, when we In our ninth exercise, we shall endeavour to de- depends on their quality, and on the capaci- say, that he will make books in most of the termine, and to point out the resemblance or simili- ties of the scholars. They are generally branches. He will construct his own maps, tude which two objects present to our senses. We shall therefore examine wherein the eye bears a short; but the pupils are frequently attended beginning with the town where he resides, resemblance to the ear, what similitude exists be-by their instructers in their amusements, and and proceeding gradually till they embrace tween a fly and an eagle, an ant and an elephant, in their excursions for obtaining means to the whole world. He will make his own betwixt winter and summer a finger and a nose, a illustrate the subjects of their lessons, so that dictionary and grammar. In geometry, by sunbeam and a weaver's beam. Many of my read-little of their time is devoted to mere amuse-preserving his drawings, he will have a ers will smile at the novelty of the idea, of finding a ment, and few things come under their obresemblance betwixt such heterogeneous objects; but if they had my experience, instead of shaking servation without being made to furnish their wise heads, and perhaps taking me for a luna-some profitable instruction. Where the tic, they would admire the immense power of mind means can be supplied, regular labour in which a child acquires through the means of such many of the useful and polite arts is requirexercises as are here hinted at. I have heard chil- ed,-enough to teach the scholar practically dren of nine and ten years of age, point out resem- the use of the knowledge which he acquires. We have not room to enlarge on the advantages of this part of the system, but we believe them to be almost incalculable.

blances between objects more distant from each other than a beam of the sun is from a weaver's

beam.

Our preceding operations will put our witty heads

to the test.

Our tenth operation shall prove a trial of our sagacity; for in this latter exercise, we shall point out the differences there exist between the left eye and the right; between a knife and a razor, ice and water, a rose and a tulip.

this method is admirably calculated to keep Our readers cannot fail of remarking, that the minds of children active without fatiguing them, or rendering their studies tedious. We are not advocates for the system which Our eleventh, and last exercise, will consist in converts all study into mere amusement, making a plain, but accurate, an exact, but precise and indulges scholars in playing their way description of any given object, by melting together to the temple of wisdom; but we do believe, in one mass, all that has been observed, examined, that the mind should be deeply interested investigated, analyzed, and determined in our preceding successive operations. I hope my readers in what it is required to learn,-that the will not imagine that this whole series of observa- exercise should be rendered pleasing in ittions will be performed in one day, in one month, self, and exempted as much as possible from or even in one year. They will, in all likelihood, all circumstances which are calculated to engage our attention during at least four, and per-produce wandering thoughts and feelings, baps five years, one hour every day. That is a long time;' granted-but, please to consider the lassitude or disgust. Let the scholar's extensiveness and importance of the business, and powers be called into full exercise, but let

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regular treatise. He is always enabled to perceive the connexion between what he is required to learn, and the use which it will promote. This is essential to his feeling satisfied with his studies; but it cannot be pretended that the common mode of instruction has any tendency to accomplish this object.

Having got fairly under weigh with this subject, we should not know when nor where our sheets, that we have only room for a conto stop, were we not reminded, by counting clusion. We will, therefore, mention one more advantage of this method of instruction, and trust to the good sense of our readers to supply the rest.

occur between the teacher and his pupils, In the familiar conversations which daily on the several topics to which their attention is directed, the scholar cannot fail of acquiring a facility and accuracy in expressing his ideas, which the common mode of instruc tion is not at all calculated to give. After the scholars have severally expressed their views on any topic, the instructer explains to them how far they are correct; notices

their several errors in opinion and in language, and rectifies the whole matter in an intelligible manner. The utmost pains are taken to cultivate in the pupils the habit of expressing their opinions freely; and, under the tuition of a competent and faithful instructer, how can they avoid learning to converse with ease and propriety on the numerous topics which will be introduced in the course of a regular education? How few persons ever learn the art of conversing well; and how little is done by common modes of education to cultivate it. It cannot be doubted, that the method adopted by Pestalozzi is admirably calculated to improve this faculty,-a talent which, as social beings, is the most important with which we are endowed.

Elements of Moral Philosophy: comprising the Theory of Morals and Practical Ethics. By John L. Parkhurst. Concord, N. H. 1825. 12mo. pp. 257.

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and, in a word, admirably suited, I think, which not only debases that, but which to make easy, pleasant, and intelligible the will also throw its tinge of gall over all highly important subjects of his inquiry. I the honourable ambition and enterprise of know of few American specimens in didac- our lives. Our elementary instructers tic writing superior to it. You will see it, should look carefully to this. The rod is a by a single glance over any of the pages, to much better corrective of indolence, than be of the author's own composition. And it is bad passions are. Indeed the latter remedy deserving of the greater praise in Mr Park-is incomparably worse, on all accounts, hurst, because he is evidently a devoted than the disease can possibly become. admirer of Dr Brown's Lectures on the You will observe that I confine my rePhilosophy of the Human Mind, which are marks here to the use of emulation in early in their style extremely wordy, prolix, and intellectual education. It is because I repetitious,-faults, however, much more would not banish it from the system entireexcusable in that mode of composition than ly. Very noble, generous feelings are in any other. sometimes awakened and brought forth by When I have said thus much in favour of it. There is scarcely a single game of the book, I am sorry to add, that it is the skill or of ingenuity, or of any interesting greatest and perhaps the only encomium it yet honourable competition, where it does deserves as a whole. There is very little, not prevail. It forms the mainspring of The reason- some of our most innocent social amuseif any, original matter in it. ings and conclusions, and indeed the order ments, where nothing but the kindest moand arrangement of Brown and Paley form tives can have play. They owe to it, inthe great body of the work. Copious ex- deed, all their value, all their delight. tracts are made continually from those Higher purposes too, have, without doubt, [We sent this volume to a lover of moral phi-highly popular writers. Page after page, been generously accomplished by it. The lososphy for a Review, and in answer to our re- nay, chapter after chapter are taken from classical scholar will scarcely be willing to quest he wrote us the following private letter, which them almost entire; and you will scarcely believe that the rival competitors at the we have since obtained leave of him to lay before open the volume casually without lighting Olympic games secretly envied and hated our readers.] upon some quotation or reference to them, each other. And perhaps I may say genor without perceiving that the author's re-erally that comparatively late in life, when marks are based altogether upon their the moral character is cast, or at least when maxims and principles. So striking is this the feelings have acquired decisively a in fact, that it appears at first sight rather kind, social, affectionate tendency, it may designed for a compilation, or an abstract always be introduced with much advantage, with a commentary upon them, than for an and made a very powerful incentive to inoriginal work itself. It is true, very gen-dustry and enterprise. It is rather a fault erous credit is given in the mean time. in Mr Parkhurst, I think, that he makes no The author seldom takes without acknowl-distinctions of this sort, but wishes the prinedging to the full amount of his obligation. ciple banished altogether. His reasonings This is but a poor apology however. His readers will scarcely excuse him for calling on them to read over again such long, detailed, elaborate discussions of other philosophers, after the promise he makes to them on his title-page.

DEAR SIR,

March, 1825.

I happened to be out of town when your little volume was left at my room, and it was not till last evening that I had an opportunity of cutting the leaves, and reading it, or rather of running it very hastily

over.

en

It is not in my power to give you a proper review of it at present. The innumerable reflections which always crowd upon the mind whenever a subject in ethics or mental philosophy is fairly presented to it, I have no leisure now to digest and arrange, and if I were to pour them out to you in detail, they would probably overflow your There are two or three honourable expages, and you must publish a number of ceptions to the censures I have just now your Gazette extra, and extra tedious, I past,-exceptions which prove the author am sure. Indeed, it seems to me quite im- to have resources within himself, and possible, within the narrow limits of a pub- must make us lament the more that he lication such as yours, to do any thing like should choose to throw himself so justice to a theme of this magnitude. The tirely upon those furnished him by other subject is altogether too large for its grasp. people. I have now in my eye particuIt is most grand and comprehensive,-em-larly the chapter on "Emulation," in the bracing the greatest number and variety of part which is headed "Practical Ethics." questions, all equally interesting to every This is very excellent. The nature and class of your readers, and yet all to be dis-origin of that feeling,-its union with cussed in an abstract, refined, and somewhat metaphysical manner. I shall at tempt nothing of this sort now. All you must expect from me is my idea of the general character of the book you have sent me. Perhaps this may save you the trouble of reading it so attentively, though I advise you, as my friend, to burn up these remarks, take it in hand, and give it a thorough examination yourself.

upon the subject are indeed able and ingenious. I would advise you to take into your review large extracts from this chapter, as much the most favourable specimen of the writer's talents and good feelings, and excellent taste in the didactic style of composition.*

Generally, however, when Mr Parkhurst

The following are the concluding remarks of the excellent chapter above referred to. VII. Concluding remarks.

1. Emulation, in every degree and in every form, is criminal, and ought never to have a place in the breast. This is evident from what has already been said; but the importance of the subject will justify us in bringing it more distinctly into

view.

Emulation is a selfish principle; and is inconsistent with the exercise of pure and universal bepride, vanity, hatred, and low ambition,-nevolence. If it were an innocent or a benevolent its dangerous tendency;-that it leads to, principle, a failure of success in striving to excel, awakens, and gradually brings into action would not produce envy and hatred. It is right to the most malignant passions of our nature, right to do this with feelings which can prevent us desire and seek our own happiness; but it is not and that, by its violence and exclusive from rejoicing in the happiness of others, even occupation of the mind, it frequently de- when they are more successful and more happy feats its own great purposes of improve- than ourselves. That emulation is inconsistent ment and supremacy, are here in these with benevolence, is a proposition which is capable pages finely set forth and demonstrated. certain station, in respect to talents, knowledge, of demonstration. Suppose that a man occupies a Certainly this principle is used injudicious- reputation, and usefulness. To see others inferior But to the work itself. And, in the first ly in our own common systems of early in- to him in these respects, gives a pleasure, which place, the author deserves a great deal of tellectual education. If the head is en- ceases as soon as they are raised to an equality praise for the style in which he offers it to lightened, it is at the expense of the heart. with him, and is converted into pain as soon as they the public. This is pure and classic,-sim- We can hardly pronounce knowledge to all the while, remains the same. The pleasure are raised above him,-although his own station, ple and unaffected,-rich, without being be a source of enjoyment when thus ac- arises from seeing others destitute of a good which encumbered with superfluous ornaments; quired. There is an alloy mingled with it, he enjoys; ceases as soon as the same blessings

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leaves his guides and undertakes to add to, or deviate from their precepts, he is unfortunate. He has divided his book into two parts. The first is called "The Theory of Morals," and contains an inquiry into the principle of approbation or disapprobation, the origin of the emotions which accompany and form these, and the nature of the feelings which excite and call them forth. The question here is, in other words, What are the qualities in actions which make them virtuous or vicious, and

which he enjoys are enjoyed by them; and is succeeded by envy and hatred, as soon as additional blessings are bestowed upon them,-although his own talents, knowledge, reputation, and usefulness are as great as ever they were. Now it is evident, that the feelings produced by a benevolent spirit,

are just the reverse of all this, at every step of the progress. The benevolent man feels his happiness diminished on seeing others deprived of blessings which he enjoys; rejoices when he sees the same blessings bestowed upon them; and rejoices still more, when he sees their happiness and usefulness still more increased.

2. Since the words 'emulation,' and 'ambition,' in the sense in which they are commonly used, denote a principle of action which is unlawful and criminal, they ought not to be used in other and different senses. To use the same word sometimes in a bad and sometimes in a good sense, has a dangerous tendency. On account of the imperfection of language, indeed, this cannot always be avoided: but so far as it can be avoided, it should be. If the more virtuous part of the community use certain words in a good sense which others use in a bad sense, the opinion of the former will be considered as countenancing the criminal sentiments and practices of the latter. The frequent recurrence of such phrases as noble emulation,' 'laudable pride,' is an outrage on propriety of language, and has a most pernicious tendency. Admitting that those who use them mean well; yet many, who hear or read them, will understand them in a sense which will tend to corrupt their moral principles. This way of using words, may be considered as a species of bad example. It wears the appearance of evil.' It makes a man appear to be the adAnd even if the good man is un

vocate of vice.

what is the faculty in the human breast nearly all the phenomena it proposes to exwhich leads us to perceive and decide upon plain. There are innumerable virtues their character. Mr Parkhurst has taken which do not consist in benevolence. The almost all his materials for this department word has a distinct and very well settled out of Brown's Lectures on the Philosphy meaning, and it will not do to define it so of the Human Mind. But he was not quite as to support this hypothesis. I cannot percontent with what he could find here. In ceive that it touches in its true significaorder to answer the great interrogatory, tion either of the cardinal virtues, as they What constitutes virtue? he has revived are commonly called. At least it does not likewise the theory of Dr Hutchinson, constitute them,-does not make them what which makes the leading characteristic they are; and even without inquiring trait of it to be benevolence; a very inter- whether they are connected with that most esting theory in itself, and capable of being estimable quality, we have no hesitation in supported ingeniously and with much moral pronouncing them to be virtues. eloquence, yet still, partial, imperfect, and, as it is presented by Mr Parkhurst, in the pages before me, most unsatisfactory. The objection to it is, that it does not embrace

But this, so far from being a reason why it should be encouraged and strengthened, is the very reason why we should be solicitous to restrain its operation, and guard against its excitement.

But it is said that scholars who are not pious, have no better principles of action, and they must be excited, in some way, to diligence and assiduity in their studies.'-Whether they have better principles of action or not, they certainly have those that are not so bad. The desire to promote their own future respectability and happiness, and the desire to please their instructers and parents, are not so bad principles of action. They are not necessarily criminal at all; and if sometimes so, are less so, and less dangerous, than motives of emulation. The love of learning for its own sake, is not so bad a principle of action. This is a most powerful stimulus; and not being of a moral nature, is of course an innocent motive. Here are principles of action, amply sufficient to stimulate every scholar in his studies without the aid of emulation. But this is denied, and it is said that scholars, without the impulse of emulation, will sink into a state of apathy and inaction. Those who think thus, are requested to make a fair experiment. When they have done this, if they still think that the principles of action which I have recommended are not sufficient, that scholars would make much greater progress if excited by emulation, and even that their progress must be very small without this excitement, I will then request them to tell me how much intellectual improvement we must put into the scale to weigh against the moral evil of emulation, with its attendant train, vanity and pride, envy, hatred, and slander.

derstood as he means, when he commends something which is really laudable, under the name of emulation, ambition, or pride; yet those who seek a cloak for their sins, will pervert this language in order to justify themselves, and will rejoice in the opportunity of indulging the most unhallowed pas- Here, then, I rest my argument. It is not necessions under these specious names. It is no small sary to prove that emulation has an unfavourable thing,' says Madame de Staël, for men to have influence on the acquisition of knowledge and on plausible language which they may use in favour of intellectual improvement. We may admit, not their conduct. They employ it, at first, to deceive only that industry is promoted, but that the mental others; and they end by deceiving themselves.' powers are excited into more vigorous action, and I therefore, as a friend to the cause of virtue, pro- the pupil's progress in science and literature accel test against the terms 'emulation' and 'ambition' erated. What is all this, when set by the side of ever being used to express any thing which is lauda-a heart depraved and temper hurt? To christian

ble or innocent.

3. Since emulation is criminal, it ought not to be encouraged, but discountenanced in children and youth. It is said, that as scholars who are not pious, have no better principles of action, we must make use of such principles as they have; and that a spirit of emulation will exist among them, whether it is encouraged or not.'-I admit, that scholars who are not pious, and even those who are, are actuated in a greater or less degree by wrong motives in pursuing their studies; but it is one thing for them to be actuated by wrong motives in studying, and another for instructers directly to influence them, and expressly to encourage them, to act from such motives.-I admit, too, that the priniple of emulation cannot be wholly eradicated from the breasts of the young. It is just as natural as human depravity: and perhaps it is as impossible wholly to prevent it from being excited in a school, as to make all the scholars perfectly holy.

The statement may perhaps be made stronger than this. All the virtues can well be divided into three great classes,→ those that spring peculiarly from religious

emotions, those that are connected with the duties which a man owes more immediately to himself, and those that ought to regulate the whole of his intercourse with other people. Now there is not a single one out of the two former of these classes, which consists in benevolence. Nobody will say, that it is this which makes devotion or piety a virtue. It forms not a principal feature in temperance, patience, industry, circumspection, &c., the most useful qualities of our nature; nor in self-command, fortitude, enterprise, firmness, heroic courage, &c., the best and most elevated moral perfections of which we know human beings are capable. So that the theory, if true at all, must be confined within the narrow limits of a single class, the smallest class probably, and I am not quite sure that it embraces all this. It is a great misnomer, or rather an unwarrantable abuse of language to extend it to the others. To say, for example, that prudence is a virtue, because it is benevolent; or that intemperance is a vice because it is always destitute of that amiable quality, would be manifestly false and absurd. The virtue and the vice are indeed often differently associated. We have seen prudent men not remarkable for their benevolence; we have seen intemperate men, on the contrary, in whose moral character this formed the prevailing trait.

Mr Parkhurst is not any more fortunate in his attempt to correct the erroneous principles of Dr Paley, from whom he takes the materials, arrangement and all, for his Second Part, which he calls "Practical parents and christian instructers, I make my ap- Ethics." The plain good sense, and the peal. I have little hope of influencing those who false theory of that excellent writer, are despise the virtues of the heart. But to you, ye well known to all your readers. Utility is followers of the meck and lowly Jesus, I look for the criterion by which he measures every co-operation in opposing a principle which is inimical to the genius of christianity. You remem- question in morals, "Whatever is expeber the lessons of humility which Christ repeated- dient is right." "Actions are to be estily inculcated on his primitive disciples, especially mated by their tendency." "It is the whenever they manifested a spirit of emulation or utility of any moral rule alone which conof ambition. You remember that he uniformly re-stitutes the obligation of it." Now these proved an aspiring disposition, and taught them that humility is an indispensable qualification for principles are supposed to be very injurious admission into the kingdom of heaven. You will in their effects on the science of ethics, therefore consider the improvement of the moral and through this medium, on the morals of and religious character as an object of infinitely the community. The mad, Machiavel theogreater importance than the attainment of any, or ry of Godwin may perhaps be fairly aseven of all, the intellectual accomplishments; nor will you wish your children to pluck of the tree of cribed to them. They are certainly liable knowledge, like our first parents, at the suggestion to one plain objection, that they are vague of a fiend.' and uncertain as a standard or rule of con

est and importance, which are connected
with the subject, and they are very numer-
ous, I will discuss with you on some other!
occasion, if a convenient opportunity should
Yours, &c.

THE LAY MONASTERY.
No. II.

Winter Months.

A sad tale's best for Winter.
Winter's Tale.

duct, and that it is difficult, or rather im-
possible, to make any useful application of
them for the regulation and improvement
of our morals. But Mr Parkhurst thinks
he refutes all the reasonings against them occur.
by insisting, in opposition to Dr Paley, on
the perfectly strict observance of general
rules. He will allow not a single excep-
tion to these. Nothing will warrant a
breach or a departure from them. Nothing
can excuse falsehood; nothing can justify
deception of any sort. The rule once be-
ing established that you ought not to do To a melancholy man there is a feeling
any particular kind of actions,-that you of intercourse and good fellowship existing
should not misrepresent, for example, you between himself and winter, and in the
cannot frame a reason, you cannot imag- language of its hollow voice and whistling
ine a state or combination of circunstances winds, he finds its communion with him.
which will authorize you to violate it, or There is a vigorous impulse and reaction be-
excuse you for even the slightest voluntary tween the hearts of men and external things;
deviation from an exact compliance with and though philosophy has long endeavour-
its precepts. This seems to be absurd ed to solve the problem, yet the doubt still
enough on the face of it. But allowing it remains whether the energies of feeling
to be true, the difficulty is not at all re- are influenced and directed by surrounding
moved. The same objections lie against objects to a greater degree than that in
this as against Dr Paley's theory. I should which the heart changes every thing,
like to ask Mr Parkhurst where these gen- that the eye rests upon, with its own
eral rules are to come from? Who is to cheerful or melancholy light. For me,
be the framer of them? On what princi- even the winter wind has a voice of elo-
ples are they to be made? Is there any quent emphasis. As I sit retired by my
limit to their number? Suppose two or evening fireside, and mark the strong light
more to conflict with one another, which glare out upon the old furniture of my
shall prevail? And who is to be the judge chamber,—and hear the wind in motion
in all these cases? Does not our author among the bare trees without, and sharply
perceive that these rules in morality are, whistling through every chink and crevice,
with a very few exceptions, of mere human there seems to be something articulate
invention, and if utility alone is to be the in the sound it utters; for it brings me tid-
criterion by which they are made, every ings of leafless woods and desert walks.
man will take the business into his own But desert as they are, in thought I visit
hands, and frame them to suit his own ideas them again. There is, indeed, no voice to
on that subject? No single action stands welcome me there; and I stand amid the
by itself and alone. There are other simi- tall and widowed trees, like one that revis-
lar ones, which may be classed and arrang-its in the winter of his life those scenes,
ed with it. Even the exceptions to one gen-
eral rule are so, only because they belong
to another. So that, on the principles of
this utility system, if we wish to screen or
justify some doubtful action of ours, all
we have to do, is to draw up a rule, which
will embrace and take it under its protec-
tion. The combination probably will sup-
port it, and it will receive its character en-
tirely from the company, where we have
the good fortune to find it a place.

But it is high time to bring this letter to a close. It has been prolonged now infinitely beyond the limits I originally assigned to it. And what is worse, I find that I have devoted a great deal too much of it to the discussion of questions, which are not of the greatest value either in the science or the practice of morality. The abstract inquiry, What constitutes virtue? is interesting and curious rather than important; and is of comparatively little moment, whether we decide that an action is virtuous because it is useful, or useful because it is virtuous, though the latter supposition seems much more satisfactory to me. These things, however, have a place in the books of all our moral writers, the oldest and the latest and the most able of them. It is this circumstance alone which has led me on in my inquiries. The matters of more inter

On the dim and misty lakes
Gloriously the morning breaks,

And the eagle's on his cloud:-
Whilst the wind, with sighing, woos
To its arms the chaste cold ooze,
And the rustling reeds pipe loud.
Where the embracing ivy holds
Close the hoar elm in its folds,

In the meadow's fenny land,
And the winding river sweeps
Through its shallows and still deeps,→→
Silent with my rod I stand.
But when sultry suns are high
Underneath the oak I lie,

As it shades the water's edge,
And I mark my line, away
In the wheeling eddy, play,
Tangling with the river sedge.
When the eye of evening looks
On green woods and winding brooks,
And the wind sighs o'er the lea,-
Woods and streams,-I leave you then,
While the shadow in the glen

have

Lengthens by the greenwood tree. Winter, though to many a comfortless season, is a time well suited to meditation. An opening year finds us changed as times and seasons have changed. There is vacant chair by our social fireside and a vacant niche in our hearts,-love may have grown cold and friendship deserted us, and we may have outlived those, who we hoped would outlive us. Perhaps we parted forever with them, from whom we never before parted,-the feet of strangers may tread upon the sepulchres of our friends, and a tender remembrance may be all that remains of them. It is as true as it is trite, that we seldom value friendship as we ought, until we feel in some degree its loss. But when our parent earth has folded to its cold bosom the child of clay, and has incorporated with its substance the form whose affections were incorporated which its summer had gladdened. The with our own, we then feel how hard it is forest and the valley and the upland are to relinquish the communion of friendship. silent around me, save when the icicle The voice of humanity is loud within us, drops from the withered branch and slides and tells us that a powerful attraction holds away on the crusted snow, or my footsteps within the limit of society the individuals startle the heron from his fountain, and he that compose it; and that we exist but in wings his noisy way upwards. The giant the mutual intercourse of heart with heart. oak heaves out its arms to the wind,-the Yet how little we think of these hidden symwithered vine hangs, covered with hoar- pathies. We pass away from the earth, frost, from the brown elm, and the dark and the world, with its cares and gayeties, moss is frozen upon its trunk. And yet so goes on the same without us as with us. strong a principle of association is contra- Our death brings no change to the face of riety, that the changing beauty of the other nature. The woods and the waters are as seasons seem to pass over the woods again, green, the skies are as fair, and the air as even whilst I stand with them. The buds full of freshness and the trees of melody, as of spring swell out afresh,-the summer when we were on earth. O, how the dead cloud overshadows the forest, and the sum- outmultitude the living:-but nature is fresh mer wind plays in the green leaves :-and and fair with buds, and ripening fruits, and again there is beauty in the many-coloured changing seasons. Here indeed the conhills of autumn. I see the trees resume nexion is not mutual; but it is between their verdure, and again they bend ourselves and the rest of our race. est is linked in with interest,-affection answers to affection! And hence it is that "there is a tear for all that die." But when a friend leaves us forever, and death seals up the volume of his life, the cares of the living soon call us from the grave of the dead, and his memory is lost to the mind as his form to the sight.

"In branching beauty and in living green”—
whilst the angler, with rod and line, sings
on his way to the silent river.

THE ANGLER'S SONG.
From the river's plashy bank,
Where the sedge grows green and rank,
And the twisted woodbine springs,
Upward speeds the morning lark
To its silver cloud-and hark!

On his way the woodman sings.

Inter

Winter, apart from its being a season so well adapted to moral thought, is also suit.

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