Wise (HENRY AUGUSTUS), cousin of Gov. Wise of Virginia, b. at Brooklyn, N. Y., May 12, 1819; entered the U. S. navy as midshipman 1834; served on the coast of Florida during the Seminole war, and on the Pacific coast during the Mexican war 1846-48; married a daughter of Edward Everett; was flag-lieutenant of the Mediterranean squadron 1852-55; conveyed the Japanese ambassadors home in the U. S. frigate Niagara 1861; became assistant chief of the ordnance bureau, with the rank of commander, 1862; was promoted to captain and chief of that bureau Dec., 1866; resigned his post 1868, and went to Europe for his health. D. at Naples, Italy, Apr. 1, 1869. Author of Los Gringos, or an Interior View of Mexico and California, with Wanderings in Peru, Chili, and Polynesia (1849), Tales for the Marines (1855), Scamparias, from GibelTarek to Stamboul (1857), The Story of the Gray African Parrot (1859), and Captain Brand of the Centipede (1860), all under the nom de plume of " Harry Gringo." Wool-Printing, a process somewhat analogous to CALICO-PRINTING (which see in CYCLOPEDIA), by which figures and colors are impressed and fixed on woollen goods. As woollen goods receive and hold colors printed on them more readily than cotton goods, the proportion among the lighter fabrics which are printed is greater than in cottons or silk goods. Some of the lighter woollen fabrics are woven in figures and colors, as the checks, plaids, etc., woven in the Crompton loom, and some of the figured worsted goods, upholstery and coach laces, etc., which are wrought on looms with Jacquard attachments. But all the figured delaines, and many of the figured worsted goods, scarfs, ties, some descriptions of shawls, felt and woollen druggets, and the so-called Crossley printed carpets, carriage-cloths, a part of the woollen quilts, and many of the felt skirtings, are printed. The process varies little from that employed in printing silk and cotton goods, the patterns and colors being applied either by blocks or by cylinders, but as wool is more susceptible to mordants than cotton, the colors are generally fast. (See WOOL, etc.) L. P. BROCKETT. Wool, Woollen Manufactures, and the WoolTrade. (1) Wool.-Strictly, wool is the covering or fleece of the sheep, but the term has been extended to include the hair of the angora, cashmere, and other goats, the hairy fleece of the alpaca, vicuna, and other species of the llama, the soft down from the belly of the camel, several kinds of fur which are spun and woven, and even cowshair, which is made up into a cheap quality of woollen goods. Wool is, however, to be distinguished from all these varieties of hair, as well as from all vegetable fibres, by the corrugated character of its fibres and by its property of felting, which is due to the scales or imbrications which overlap each other along the course of its fibres, and which, under certain conditions, from their corrugation, interlock with each other and form a felted fabric. (See FELT and HAT-MAKING.) Hair possesses very little of this felting property, but by long beating and rubbing develops it to some extent. Wool was the earliest of the textile fibres to be used for the purpose of clothing, and the transition from the use of the pelts rudely fastened together, which formed the only garment of the pre-historic man, as it does of some of the savage tribes at the present day, was made at a very early period in the history of the race. The earliest woven cloths were made from the wool of the sheep, and perhaps a century or two later the hair of the goat was used for the same purpose; but both preceded fabrics of linen and silk. The use of wool in the manufacture of clothing early became universal among all the more civilized nations of the world. Garments, of all sorts-royal robes, head-dresses, and shawls of the finest wool-as well as tent-coverings, carpets, and curtains of that which was of coarser texture, were produced by the Asiatics in such profusion that it would seem to have been for ages almost the only textile in use. The imperial purple of Rome and the kingly robes of all the Oriental nations were of pure wool colored with the Tyrian dye, whose perfect beauty, after being lost for ages, has been reproduced in our own time by the superb aniline dyes. Sheep formed a large part of the wealth of the Oriental nations, particularly of those which were more or less nomadic in their habits; and as these were kept very largely for food, though shorn every year, it is remarkable that in the absence of any special efforts to improve the character of their wool it should have retained its good qualities to such an extent as to enable those nations with their rude processes to have produced fabrics of such delicate and exquisitely fine texture, as we know from the testimony of the writers of those times, issued from their looms. The first attempts to improve the breeds of sheep with special reference to the production of a finer quality of wool were made by the Romans about the second century B. C. Their Tarrentian sheep produced a long and finely-stapled wool, and their fleeces were very heavy, but the color was either brown or black, and the sheep were so delicate in constitution that they were reared with difficulty, and were kept covered even in the mild climate of Italy. Columella, an eminent Roman agricultural writer, whose active life was passed in the first forty years of our era, relates in his Re Rustica that his uncle, Marcus Columella, who was a wealthy agriculturist in Spain, transported some white African rams of great size and beauty to his estate in Boetica (a part of the present province of Estremadura), and by continually crossing them with his Tarrentian ewes and their progeny succeeded in producing a breed of white finewoolled sheep of vigorous and hardy constitution and yielding a heavy fleece. This cross is supposed by many to have been the original of the Spanish merino sheep, which, with its various modifications and crossings, has been the parent of most of the fine-woolled sheep of Europe and America. Its transportation to France and careful improvement there have led to the production of the French merino, one of the finest of the long-wool breeds. Its introduction into Germany, and modification by crossing and by climatic influences, have produced the fine Saxon wools, adapted to the making of the best broadcloths; and the French sheep of Naz, which yields a still finer and more silky wool of great lustre, though now a distinct breed, bears traces of its early merino origin. In America the Spanish merino, introduced here by Delessert, Livingston, Col. Humphreys, and William Jarvis between 1801 and 1812, has exerted a wide influence, and together with the Saxony sheep, the sheep of Naz, and the French merino constitutes to this day the largest proportion of those flocks which are grown mainly for their wool. The Australian and Cape Colony wools are also largely indebted to the merino sheep for their good qualities. During the last thirty or forty years the greatly-increased demand for mutton as an article of food has led to the breeding of sheep which have larger food-producing value, and with which the wool is an incidental rather than the principal product. The Leicester, Cotswold, and South Down among the English sheep are the best of this class, while the undistinguished breeds of South America, as well as those of our Western States, have some of the same characteristics. These all yield coarser wools, and while the best grades are valuable for the worsted manufacture, for which our native wools are not adapted, the coarser are equally in demand for carpets, friezes, and negro cloths. Wool is divided by the sorters primarily into pulled and clipped or fleece wools, the former being pulled by the roots from the pelt or skin of the dead animal, and the latter clipped or shorn from the living one. The clipped or fleece wools form the greater part of the wool in market, and these are again divided into long and short staple, or clothing and combing wools. These, again, are classed according to their fineness, though as a rule the short-staple clothing or carding wools are much finer than the combing wools, and they also possess the felting property in a high degree, having more serratures or scales to interlock than the others. The clothing wools are used mainly for broadcloths and the thicker woollen cloths; the finer combing wools for soft and thin fabrics for women's wear; the medium for worsted goods, delaines, alpacas, mohairs, etc.; and the coarser for carpets, blankets, and coarse goods generally. The quantity of wool grown has increased very rapidly during the present century in Europe, America, Australia, and Southern Africa. In Asia, where the sheep is valuable alike for its flesh, its fleece, and its pelt, it does not probably vary much from what it was in past ages. The increase in quantity in Europe and America has been largely due to improved methods of breeding and feeding the sheep, which caused them to mature earlier and to yield larger and more uniform fleeces. Much of this improvement and the introduction of the new Leicester breed, the Lincoln, the South and Norfolk Downs, the Dorset and Cheviot, now the best grades of English wools, were due to Robert Bakewell of Dishley and to John Ellman and Jonas Mills, his enterprising and successful competitors in this good work. In this country, since the time of Humphrey and Livingston, already mentioned, the most eminent and successful woolgrowers have been Messrs. Stephen Atwood, H. S. Randall, Grove, D. C. Collins, William Chamberlain, Edwin Hammond, and George Geddes. The increase in the production and consumption of wool in Great Britain during the pres ent century is enormous. In 1801 the wool-clip of the United Kingdom amounted to 94,000,000 pounds, and the imports of unmanufactured wool to 8,000,000 pounds more. In 1828 the production was about 112,000,000 pounds, and the imports in round numbers 30,000,000. In 1851 the production was 208,000,000 pounds, and the importation 83,000,000. In 1865 the production was estimated at 250,000,000 pounds, and the importation was 212,206,000 pounds. The next ten years increased the production to 298,000,000 pounds, and the importation to 325,000,000 WOOL, WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES, AND THE WOOL-TRADE. pounds; and to this was to be added for manufacturing | purposes about 85,000,000 pounds of shoddy and wool extract. The exportation of wool at this time was, however, about 100,000,000 pounds. The wool production of France has increased almost as rapidly as that of Great Britain, though mainly in the finer descriptions of wool. France imports also considerable quantities of fine wools from other countries. The Australian colony of New South Wales alone exported in 1884, 120,221,143 pounds of wool to Great Britain. In the U. S. the demands for wool for our own manufactures have increased the production from very small beginnings to 193,000,000 pounds in 1875, and 210,681,751 pounds in 1880, while the amount imported was nearly 55,000,000 pounds in 1875 and 67,768,778 pounds in 1885. Our importation consists of three kinds of wool, neither of which we produce to any great extentviz. the fine wools of Saxony for broadcloths, etc., the Leicester and other combing wools of high lustre for worsted goods, from Canada and Great Britain, and the coarse long-stapled South American wools for carpets, etc. (2) Woollen Manufactures.-The manufacture of wool into fabrics for clothing is one of the oldest industries in the world. At precisely what date the primitive man, or rather the primitive woman, discovered that the coarse wool of the sheep, the first of domesticated animals, could be spun into long threads, woven on the rude and improvised looms, and then, by rubbing with clay and beating in water, thickened or fulled till it furnished a satisfactory substitute for the pelts of the sheep, which had till then formed the clothing of man, history does not inform us; but it must have been prior to that dispersion of the nations which took place on the plains of Shinar, for this and the traditions of the Creation and the Flood are the only things common to all the tribes of the world. From these rude garments the transition to those of finer and more skilful workmanship was gradual; the production of dyed garments, of shawls, and of carpets, often of elaborate patterns and requiring protracted labor, was attempted at a very early period, and the manufacture of tent and curtain cloths, of tapestry hangings embroidered with needlework, and of those vestments of lamb's wool and the rich imperial purple robes, came somewhat later. Some of the Persian, Greek, and Roman cloths, robes, and shawls must have been very beautiful; but in the ages which followed the downfall of the Western Roman empire the art of manufacturing them, like most of the fine arts, was nearly lost; the says and serges of the Dark and the Middle Ages were made from coarse and harsh wools, and were not what we should regard as pleasant or desirable goods for wear. The rough friezes, made of still coarser wool in Friesland, were still more objectionable, and the manufacture, such as it was, existed mainly in Florence, in Flanders, in England, and in France. After the thirteenth or fourteenth century silks, satins, and velvets became the favorite and distinguishing clothing of the wealthy. Until after the period of the Reformation the manufacture of woollen goods was almost entirely domestic; the large spinning-wheel and the reel had indeed taken the place of the distaff; and the handloom, gradually improved, of the rude contrivances of the Oriental weavers. Among the thousands engaged in this domestic manufacture, some possessed greater manual skill and higher ingenuity than others, and consequently their cloths were more in demand; and the assembling of their looms and spinning-wheels in a single building gave them some advantages. The dyeing and fulling of the cloths was a separate business, and for this a water-power was required, and so fulling-mills sprang up wherever there were considerable quantities of cloths made. The use of the teasel for combing out a nap on the fulled cloths dates from an unknown antiquity. There were frauds in those days-stretching of the goods and the use of flocks or chopped wool-the predecessor of the shoddy of our dayto give the cloths a fraudulent appearance of greater thickness and body. From the end of the thirteenth to the end of the seventeenth century this domestic manufacture of worsteds, baizes, kerseys, serges, friezes, broadcloths, and other cloths was carried on very extensively in England, and considerable quantities of each were exported. The English cloths were mainly of coarse qualities, and inferior to some of those made on the Continent, the Spanish and Flemish fine wools enabling them to make finer and more desirable goods. In the eighteenth century the manufacture of both worsteds and woollens began to be concentrated in Yorkshire, and Leeds, Stroud, Chippenham, and Huddersfield gradually became the seats of the woollen goods manufacture; while Bradford, Halifax, Norwich, and their vicinities absorbed the manufacture of worsted goods and carpets. But, though large quantities of goods were made and sold, their quality was far from uniform, and there was no improvement in the processes of manufacture until the invention of the carding-machine by Lewis 799 Paul, which first came into use for wool in England about 1753, and the spinning-jenny, invented by Hargreaves and improved by Arkwright (1767-69). The gradual introduction of these machines, and the application of steam both as a motor and for dyeing and dressing purposes, greatly improved the character of the English and French cloths, but until the introduction of the power-loom (which, though invented in 1785, did not come into general use till about 1800) and the Jacquard loom (invented in 1811), the woollen and worsted manufactures had not received their greatest impulse in Great Britain. The French manufacturers were progressing meanwhile in a somewhat different direction. With their fine and soft wools they directed their attention very largely to the production of fabrics for women's wear, and with their admirable taste and delicacy of workmanship soon achieved great success. The French merino goods, introduced by Pallotan at Rheims in 1801, have never been surpassed by any all-wool product in softness, durability, and beauty. Other goods, both of wool and worsted, pure and in combination with silk, cotton, and linen, have been produced in vast quantities in England and France. The broadcloths of the highest grade made in France are of better quality than any others, except some of the German goods; but the practice of adulterating these, as well as cassimeres, satinets, and indeed almost every description of the heavier wool goods, with shoddy or the ground and picked fibres of old woollen rags, first proposed in 1813 at Batley, England, but not largely used till 1840, has done much to impair the value and durability of the lower and medium-priced goods. This practice has been carried to a greater excess in Great Britain and Belgium than elsewhere. In the U.S. the manufacture of woollen goods was almost entirely domestic as late as 1790, and though there had been fulling-mills from the first settlement of the colonies, there was no woollen-factory in successful operation before 1794, when one was established in Byfield parish, Newbury, Mass. The same year the first carding-machine for wool was put in operation in Pittsfield, Mass. Between that time and 1801 four or five were started. Gray-mixed broadcloth of good quality was made at Pittsfield in 1804, and President Madison's inaugural suit of black broadcloth was made there in 1808. In 1809 a woollen-mill was erected by Dr. Capron at Oriskany, Oneida co., N. Y., and in 1812 what was then considered a large manufactory of fine cloths was established at Middletown, Conn., which made thirty or forty yards of broadcloth a day. The same year an American inventor produced what are known as the helicoidal shears, a cutting-machine with spiral blades on a cylinder acting against a straight steel blade, and shearing the nap of the cloth evenly and perfectly. This was first adopted in France. The American inventors were prolific of inventions for the improvement of these manufactures, and to them the world is indebted for the original and best processes for making felted goods, carpetings, broadcloths, hat-bodies, etc.; the knitting-frame, and later the various knitting-machines, the burring-machine, the Crompton loom for weaving by power fancy cassimeres, which, with its successive improvements, is now far superior to any other loom for this purpose; and the still more wonderful automatic Bigelow carpet-loom; the best processes for making a mixed mousseline delaine; Simpson's woolcomber; the Smith moquette carpet-loom: and, latest of all, the compounder or new machine, which makes by a novel and ingenious process, from comparatively thin goods, the heavy pile goods known as the "Windsor fabrics." The woollen manufacturers in this country have had great difficulties to contend with. In addition to the high price of labor as compared with European countries, and the lack for many years of native wool of those qualities best adapted to their use, they have been alternately fostered and ruined by high and low tariffs, and their goods systematically depreciated by the importers and free-traders; but they have at length reached a position in which they can supply more than three-fourths of the woollen and worsted goo is consumed here, and, except in a few classes of goods, produce those of better quality than their European rivals. Comparatively few of the finest grades of broadcloths or black cassimeres are made here, none of the finest French merinos or cashmeres, nor some varieties of worsted goods, nor, to any considerable extent, the Persian or Axminster carpets-the broadcloths, merinos, etc., because we have not a sufficient supply of the very finest wools, nor is it profitable either to grow or import them; and the carpets and some of the worsted goods because they are only in demand to a limited extent, and will not pay a fair interest on the costly" plant" necessary for their production. But our mills do produce nearly all the fancy cassimeres, plaid and striped cloths, tricots, and cheviots for business suits, and the larger part of the meltons and silk mixtures used for the same purpose; the beavers, moscows, chinchillas, diagonals, and other cloaking goods for outer garments; knit goods of all grades and for all purposes; and flannels and blankets of superior quality to any in the world for bed-coverings; woollen shawls of exquisite beauty and serviceableness, broche and other fine shawls; delaines, both the all-wool and the mixed goods so generally worn, and now all-wool merino plaids and matelasses; horse blankets, rugs, and felted carpeting, and clothing of all descriptions; felt and wool hats of several grades; ingrain carpets of all qualities; Brussels, velvet, tapestry, and recently some Wilton, Axminster, and Aubusson carpets; printed carpets and floor-cloths; worsted poplins, serges, cloakings, printed cashmeres, alpacas, mohair lustres, and brilliantines; satin lastings and prunellas of excellent quality; all descriptions of upholstery fabrics, including reps, all-wool and union damasks, silk cotelines, lambrequin cloths, carriage trimmings and lace, wool fringes, yak fringes and lace, bunting superior to the British; while in our newly-invented Windsor fabrics," in which, by a new process, we are able to thrust the fibres of the wool through lighter fabrics and lock and felt them on the under side, we have achieved a great victory both in cheapness and durability over the foreign manufacturers of heavy pile goods. The growth of the woollen manufacture in the U. S. within the past fifty or sixty years has been very rapid. From 1790 to 1810 there was a large domestic manufacture in proportion to the population, and the greater part of the men and all the boys were clothed in homespun, while the women wore, for every-day use, linsey-wolsey, a fabric composed of linen and wool. In 1810 this domestic manufacture was estimated at $25,608,788. But after this date the domestic production fell off rapidly, and at first the factorymade goods did not supply their place. In 1820 the total value of woollen goods reported was $4,413,068; in 1830, $14,528,166; in 1840, $20,696,999; in 1850, $43,207,545; in 1860, $68,865,963; in 1870, $217,668,826. In 1876, owing to the depression of business, there was a slight falling off in production, and a still larger one in importation. The value of the woollen goods produced in 1880 is estimated at $237,524,650. Massachusetts has from the first maintained the leading position in these manufactures, her production of all-wool goods, carpetings, worsted, and mixed goods of cotton, linen, or silk and wool, amounting in 1880 to $63,492,889, or more than one-fourth of the whole production of the country. Pennsylvania, New York, Connecticut, and Rhode Island are the other largest producers, though nearly every State has some woollen manufactures. The importations in 1821 were $7,437,737; in 1831, $12,627,229; in 1841, $11,001,939; in 1851, $19,507,309; in 1861, $28,487,166; in 1870, $34,049,070; in 1885, $44,656,482. Processes of Manufacture of Woollen and Worsted Goods. -The variety of goods wholly or in part made of wool, and of those wholly or in part of worsted, is so great that we can only name in the most general way the processes to which each is subjected in its manufacture. The distinction between the woollen and worsted goods begins, as we have already intimated, in the character of the wool used: for all descriptions of heavy wool goods a more or less fine, short-stapled, and readily-felting wool is required; for all goods wholly or in part of worsted the wool must be of long staple (fibres 23 to 5 or 6 inches in length), not very fine, and either naturally or by the combing process freed, as much as possible, from those serratures or imbrications which constitute the felting property. This primary difference in the character of the wools required, of course, governs the purchase of the wool, and restricts it to the quality adapted for the use of the particular kind of goods to be made. In the case of the woollen manufactures the wool, which is usually purchased in bales, and not scoured, is (1) sorted, the sorter arranging each pile or lot according to its fineness, length of staple, and silkiness of texture. (2) Scoured; this is accomplished by throwing it into large tanks filled with water and an abundance of soap, and kept at a high temperature by means of steam, and continually moved by means of rakes or stirring-sticks driven by steampower. When thoroughly cleansed it is drawn out through rollers to squeeze out the water, and then dried by revolving fans or other means. By this scouring and washing not only is the dirt and soil removed from the fleeces, but the yolk or suint-a peculiar fatty secretion of the sheep most abundant in the merino breeds-is also discharged. The English manufacturers extract these matters from the water by a chemical process, and make candles from the product. The wool is next dyed (if it is necessary to dye it in the wool). The next process is willying, or, in the case of Western and South American wools, burring. The object of this is to remove seeds and burs which have become entangled in the wool. The American burring-machine of Mr. S. R. Packhurst does this very perfectly and in com bination with the carding-machine. Picking, teasing, or moating is the next process, and is performed by a machine which tears open the matted portions and separates the wool into small tufts, the larger impurities and knots being frequently removed by hand-picking. Either before or immediately after this process the wool is oiled, oleic acid or oleine being now generally used for this purpose, instead of olive oil, and sometimes a mixture of oleine and paraffine oil; these oils are much more readily removed from the yarn or tissues by a brief scouring with carbonate of soda and pure water than the olive oil, and there is much less danger of spontaneous combustion than from the use of the vegetable oils. The wool is now ready for the scrubbing, carding, and slubbing processes, which, though formerly separate, are now continuous by the use of the patent feeder and condenser. Their office is to convert the wool into rolls, which are drawn out and slightly twisted before they are spun. The spinning is the next process, and herein is another difference between woollen and worsted yarns, the yarns for woollen cloths being but slightly twisted, so as to leave them more free for felting, but those for the warp twisted more than those for the weft, as they have to bear more strain; while the worsted yarns are hard-spun and made into a much stronger thread. The slight twisting and comparative lack of strength in woollen yarn renders it more difficult to weave it on a power-loom than the worsted, cotton, silk, or linen yarns. The yarn, when spun, is reeled, and, if to be made into cloth, warped, beamed, singed, sized, and otherwise prepared for weaving. The weaving may take place on a hand-loom, on an ordinary power-loom for broadcloths, flannels, cassimeres, satinets, blankets, etc., etc.; on a Crompton loom for fancy cassimeres, yarns of different colors being introduced; or on the Earnshaw needle-loom, where the goods are made with two faces or different colors are used. Broadcloths, and indeed most woollen goods, are next scoured to remove the oil, and then, if thought necessary, dyed again, and tentered or stretched upon hooks to dry. Burling, or picking off irregular threads, hairs, and dirt, succeeds this, and then, for the cloths, come the fulling process and the teaseling or raising the nap. which is sheared evenly by the helicoidal shears. It is next steamed or scalded to prevent its spotting unevenly from the rain, and pressed between polished iron plates in a powerful hydraulic press. The Hannels, blankets, etc., do not go through these last processes. The knit goods are made from the yarn on knitting-machines and finished by hand. Delaines have usually cotton weft, and are woven on cotton looms, and printed, like calicoes, from rollers. Carpets are made from coarser wools, and do not go through so many preliminary processes before spinning; they are woven on the Bigelow carpet-looms or some modification of them. The worsted wools are combed on a combing-machine with heated teeth, to make the fibres straight and parallel, and the shorter fibres are combed out; these are called noils. The other processes before the spinning are much the same as already described; the yarns are hard-twisted, and for some purposes, as for alpacas, mohairs, and lustred goods, the lustred wools and the hair or wool of the alpaca and vicuna and of the angora goat are used. The weaving and dyeing of these goods are watched with great care. The cow's hair, camel's hair, and calf's hair goods are of cheaper grades, and in quality belong rather to the woollen than the worsted trade. Most of them contain a considerable proportion of the lower grades of wool, woollen waste, and shoddy. (3) Wool-Trade.-The business of dealing in wools is a very ancient one. There are evidences of its existence probably not less than four thousand years ago. Syria and Persia, with their immense flocks, whose fleeces formed an important item of traffic as early as the time of Abraham, whose white wools were sold in the Tyrian market a thousand years later, and at a subsequent period Greece, Asia Minor, and Rome, were all largely interested in the wooltrade. In the Middle Ages the dealer in wool was called a wool-stapler, from his selection and appraisal of the different qualities of wool. This was the calling of Shakspeare's father, and was not an uncommon one at that day. With the vast increase of the wool manufacture throughout Europe and America in the present century, the wool-trade has become one of the most important branches of traffic. Its weekly, monthly, and annual reports are carefully studied in all the great marts of trade. The business is complicated by the great variety of qualities and prices of wools, The total wool-clip of the U. S. in 1880 was 240,681,751 pounds; the amount imported in 1885 was 67,768,778 pounds. (For many important facts and statistics used in this article the writer is indebted to the kindness of John L. Hayes, Esq., secretary of the National Association of Wool Manufacturers, Boston, Mass., and Franklin Allen, Esq., secretary of the Silk Association of America, New York City.) L. P. BROCKETT. JOHNSON'S UNIVERSAL CYCLOPÆDIA. (REVISED EDITION.) THE DEPARTMENTS, AND INDEX TO LESS THAN HALF THE SPECIAL ARTICLES. It had been the intention to present here a complete list of the special articles contained in all EDITORS-IN-CHIEF. FREDERICK A. P. BARNARD, S. T. D., LL.D., L. H. D., M. N. A. S., Abyssinia.........L. P. Brockett. Andes.. Arabia. Baden .A. J. Schem. Bremen. ARNOLD GUYOT, PH. D., LL.D., M. N. A. S., JOHN D. PHILBRICK, LL.D., D. C. L. Japan.......Charles Lanman. Columbia Col..F. A. P. Barnard. | German Empire...G. Neumann. [ Jamaica......Clemens Petersen. Determinant.....H. A. Newton. Engraving of Bank-Notes..C. L. Universal... F. A. P. Barnard. Universal... W. P. Blake. ney. Foo-Chow.....August Niemann. France....... ...Capt. Prudent. mann. Freemasonry......G. S. Blackie. A. L. Snowden. Generation, Spontaneous..F. A. Germ-Theory of Disease... F. A. Hesse....... Clemens Petersen. Ice owens. Infant Schools...E. P. Peabody, Koran. Lens. ..Tayler Lewis. Lock Locomotive... Magic Lantern.F.A.P.Barnard. Colombia, U. S. of.L.P.Brockett. ¦ Geography........Arnold Guyot., Jade...............August Niemann. | Mineralogy......H. B. Cornwall. VOL. VIII.-51 801 Moon Barnard. Mining Eng'ing... F. L. Vinton. | Polarization of Light...F. A. P. ...J. M. Merrick. Paris.. Quebec. Polar Researches.....C. P. Daly. .W. F. Brand. Roof.. ..Samuel H. Shreve, August Niemann. E. A. Axon. ASSOCIATE MARTIN B. ANDERSON, LL.D., Salt......Charles A. Goessmann. | Tasmania.....August Niemann. Sanitary Science... E. H. Janes. Satlej.........Emil Schlagintweit. mann. gate. Scandinavia..August Niemann. Silkworm.....A. S. Packard, Jr. Steel Straits Settlements...........Emil Fetich. EDITORS. Athanasius...........A. J. Schem. Evidences of Christianity... Free Church of Scotland......D. University Education......J. M. Buildings...C. B. Richards. Westminster Assembly, etc...... Woman's Rights.S. B.Anthony. Gilead............R. D. Hitchcock. Gospel and Gospels....P. Schaff. |