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TRIODONTIDE-TROCHILIDE.

The reason for giving both to the Senecas was the greater danger apprehended from the West. They were elected, and afterward raised up by the general council, the same as the sachems, and were equal in rank and authority. Gov. Blacksnake, recently deceased, held one of these offices. As general commanders they had charge of the military affairs of the confederacy, and commanded in person the confederate forces when united on an expedition. The creation of two instead of one argues a calculating policy, an unwillingness to entrust the military command to a single

person.

The character and functions of the council, the mode of its appointment, the limitations upon its authority, and the tenure and powers of the office of chief, are the principal points to be considered to understand the structure and principles of a confederacy of tribes. That of the Iroquois is an excellent exemplification of a society or populus under gentile institutions. It seems to reveal nearly all the capabilities of gentile society in the archaic state, leaving no subsequent plan of government radically different until political society was attained and the gentes themselves were overthrown. The intermediate stages, which were transitional, gave nothing higher than a military democracy resting upon the gentes. LEWIS H. MORGAN.

Triodon'tidæ [from Triodon-peis, "three," and odoús, "tooth "the generic name of the type], a family of teleost fishes of the order Plectognathi and sub-order Gymnodontes, and comprising the most generalized forms of the sub-order and those nearest the Sclerodermi. The body is oblong, with a very dilatable abdomen; and with a slender conic tail; the skin is covered with "small osseous, scale-like, spiny subimbricate lamina;" the lateral line well marked; the head oblong, with the snout rather long; the opercular apparatus concealed by the skin; the nostrils represented by two distinct openings on each side; the mouth is terminal and small; the upper jaw divided by a median suture, the lower undivided (thus together forming three tooth-like pieces, whence the name); the teeth are only represented by the trenchant edges of the jaws; the branchial apertures are narrow clefts in front of the pectoral fins; the branchiostegal rays entirely concealed; dorsal and anal fins very short and far behind, the former more advanced forward than the latter; caudal separate and emarginated; pectorals rather narrow ventrals entirely wanting. An air-bladder is present. The skeleton is tolerably well ossified, and distinct ribs are developed; the so-called pelvic bone is large, and serves to keep expanded the abdominal sac-like expansion, "the lower part of which is merely a flap of skin into which the air does not penetrate" (Günther). The family is especially interesting on account of its relations, and as serving to demonstrate the affinity of the gymnodonts with the scleroderms. species is known, the Triodon bursarius of the Indian Ocean and Archipelago. THEODORE GILL.

But one

Trionych'idæ [from Trionyx-peis, "three," and övvg, övvxos, "claw"-the typical genus], a family of reptiles of the order Testudinata (tortoises), containing the soft-shelled tortoises, and distinguished by the leathery and scaleless shell. The head is oblong, covered with a naked skin, and without plates, with the eyes near the front, and with the snout produced and attenuated, and the nostrils terminal; the jaws are covered by fleshy lips; the neck is elongated and retractile in a longitudinal axial curve; the shell has its upper and lower parts (carapace and plastron) connected by broad bridges, and covered with a soft skin having an expanded and reflexible margin; the pelvis is attached to the vertebral column, and not connected with the plastron ; the feet are expanded; the toes spreading, but connected by a web, their internal margins provided with a web-like membrane, and the three outer toes clawed. The family includes the soft-shelled turtles. "The principal habitat of the members of this family is the muddy bottom of shallow waters. They bury themselves in the soft mud, leaving only the head, or a small part of it, exposed. They take breath from time to time, without moving the body, by raising up the long neck and head and carrying the leathery snout above water. They sometimes stay under water a long time without taking breath; in one instance, a specimen has been seen to remain under water for more than half an hour without raising its snout above the surface. The nature of the habitat is clearly connected with some of the prominent family characteristics." They rarely emerge from the water to take to the land, and when on the land their locomotion is laborious and constrained. In the water, however, they are very active and quick in their movements. "They feed upon shells, especially upon anodontas and paludinas." "They lay from twelve to twenty and more eggs, of a spherical form and above the size of a musket-ball, which they deposit on the shore by the water's edge. The shell of these eggs is thick, but very brittle."

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Such are the principal features of the habits of the American species, as observed by Agassiz. (Contributions to the Natural History of the U. S. of A., vol. i. pp. 333-334.) Representatives of the family are found most abundantly in the tropical regions of Asia and Africa, but a number of species also extend through a considerable area in the U. S., and equally far northward in Asia. The number of known species has been considerably increased within the last fifteen years, and by Dr. J. E. Gray they have been classified under three families (which would by most authors be regarded as not more than sub-families) and nineteen genera. N. American species, according to Agassiz and Cope, are (1) Amyda mutica, (2) Platypeltis ferox, (3) Aspidonectes spinifer, (4) A. asper, (5) A. nuchalis, and (6) A. emoryi. The first and third of these extend northward to the St. Lawrence basin, and elsewhere are inhabitants of the northern as well as middle tributaries of the Mississippi River; the others are more southern in their range. THEODORE GILL.

Trochil'idæ [from Trochilus-the Greek name, тpoxixos, of an unknown bird, but perhaps the wren-applied by Linnæus to the humming-birds], a family of birds peculiar to America, and constituted of the humming-birds. The general physiognomy is familiar in connection with the common North American form; the bill is slender and elongated, but otherwise very diversiform; the gape moderate; the tongue is "composed of two lengthened cylindrical united tubes, capable of great protrusion, and bifid at the tip" (Gould); the nostrils are linear, and near the wings are long and narrow, and have ten (rarely nine) base of the upper mandible; there are no rictal bristles; the primaries, rapidly graduated from the first (or second) to the tenth, and only six very short secondaries; the tarsi and one behind; the tail is composed of ten feathers, but are very short and slender; the toes small, three in front in shape is extremely diversiform. The most notable features of the internal organization are as follows: The skull is essentially like that of the Cypselida (swifts) and Caprimulgida (goatsuckers), though of course very much modified in many minor respects; the sternum has a very deep keel, and its posterior margin is rounded; the humerus is extremely short, and the manus quite elongated; the hyoid bones are very long, "in their position resembling those in the Picida (woodpeckers); trachea of uniform diameter. destitute of muscles of voice [?]; bronchia very long; œsophagus funnel-shaped, slightly contracted on approaching the proventriculus, which is small and (Eyton); the ambiens muscle is wanting in the knee; the scarcely perceptible; gizzard small, moderately muscular"

primary femoro-caudal is present, but the accessory femorocaudal, semitendinosus, and accessory semitendinosus are deficient; the pectoral muscles are very large. The affinities of these birds were long misappreciated, and by the older authors they were universally approximated to the "tenuirostral" Passeres (such as creepers, hoopoes, etc.), but it is now proved that they are most nearly related to the swifts. The two families have indeed by some authors (e.g. Nitzsch and Garrod) been even combined in one family (called Macrochires), on account of their general agreement, and especially in the relative shortness of the humerus and length of the manus. They are, however, generally (and apparently with great propriety) regarded as two quite distinct families. The Trochilidae are very numerous in genera and species: Mr. Gould, in his great monograph, has admitted 416 species, ranked under 123 genera, and Mr. G. R. Gray, in his Handlist, has recognized 469 species grouped under 2 sub-families, 10 genera, and (including generic types) 163 sub-genera. The species differ extremely in the form of the bill and that of the tail: the bill, e. g., varies in extent from almost less than the length of the head to that of the rest of the body, and is sometimes upcurved (e. g. Arocettula), sometimes straight, and sometimes, again (e. g. Eutoxeres), boldly decurved; while generally, too, the mandibles are unarmed, sometimes (as in Grypus) they have "a row of numerous and thicklyset teeth," and "a strong hook at the end of the mandibles' (Gould). The tail is equally variable; "in some species (e. g. Lesbia amaryllis) it is four times the length of the body, in others (e. g. Calothorax micrurus) it is so extremely short as to be entirely hidden by the coverts;" in some, again, it is extremely forked, while, on the contrary, in others, it is to an almost equal degree wedge-shaped. It is chiefly on such modifications that the numerous genera are based. Much yet remains to be done in the combination of the genera into natural groups. The species, as already intimated, are most numerous in equatorial countries, but heat is by no means a necessary condition of their existence, as in those countries not a few species dwell in the high mountainous, and consequently cold, regions. On Chimborazo, "just below the line of prepetual congelation," one notable species (Oreotrochilus chimborazo) is found. Several species also ascend far into

the uplands or plains of North America, the most northern | America, and the rufous-backed humming-bird (Selasbeing the common humming-bird (Trochilus colibris) of phorus rufus) of the Pacific States, which is said to extend the Eastern States, which wanders as far N. as British upward to British Columbia and Alaska. Other species

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with 1 genus (2 sub-genera). By most authors, however, about 15 genera are admitted under the first group. The species of the northern hemisphere are rather plain-looking but prepossessing birds, and the attitude of the common species-head stretched forward and upward and tail bent upward while singing-is characteristic. They are chiefly insectivorous. Their nests are mostly built in trees, often in cavities, and the eggs are rather numerous (seven to nine in Troglodytes ædon), and short for their length. The North American species admitted by Baird, etc., are Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus, C. affinis, Salpinetes obsoletus, Catherpes mexicanus, Thryothorns ludovicianus, Thryomanes Bewickii, Troglodytes ædon, T. parvulus or hyemalis, Cistothorus stellaris, and C. palustris, besides varieties.

Various species of Humming-birds. migrate to equally cold regions in Patagonia. There is a remarkable difference between the males and females in most of the members of the family: the males are generally very brilliantly colored, their head, neck, and breast feathers especially reflecting iridescent hues of various kinds, while their feathers are frequently developed in some fantastic manner; the females, on the contrary, are mostly quite plain in their colors, and have little exuberance of plumage. The species are mostly the smallest of birds, the largest of the family, the Patagona gigas of the western slope of South America (Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Chili), being about eight inches long, or the size of a swallow, while the smallest, the Mellisuga minima of Jamaica and San Domingo, is barely an inch and a quarter in length. The species frequently stop, poised in mid-air, rapidly vibrating their wings and producing a humming sound, which has procured for them their popular name. They especially exhibit this peculiarity in their visits from flower to flower in search of the nectar and the minute in

sects contained therein. They are fearless little creatures, and readily accommodate themselves to the presence of man, but are very difficult to keep in confinement. They mostly build in bushes or vines or on the sides of rocks cup-shaped nests, and therein lay generally two eggs (but sometimes, it is believed, only one), which are hatched in about two weeks or little more. Thirteen or fourteen species are found within the limits of the U. S. (See also HUMMING-BIRD, in CYCLOPEDIA.) THEODORE GILL. Troglodyt'inæ, or Troglodytidae [from Troglodytes -Tрwyλoduτηs, a "cave-dweller "-the name of the typical genus], a sub-family or family of passerine birds, containing the wrens. The characters have been best formulated by Baird, who considers the group as a family. The form is exemplified in the familiar wren: the bill is slender, and the upper mandible is generally entire, but sometimes notched; no rictal bristles are developed, but the loral feathers have bristly points; the nostrils are diversiform, "exposed or not covered by feathers, and generally overhung by a scalelike membrane;" the wings are rounded, and have ten primaries, the first of which is generally about half as long as the second; the tarsi are moderately long and scutellate; the toes are moderate; the middle "usually united to half the basal joint of the inner and the whole of that of the outer, or more," and the lateral about equal, or the outer a little longer; the hinder one enlarged; the tail is moderate. The group comprises the wrens of the northern hemisphere and numerous related species, the greater part of which are American. By G. R. Gray, 126 species are recognized as members of the group, dignified by him as a family, and are grouped under two sub-families-viz. Troglodytinæ, with 5 genera (20 sub-genera), and Tatarina,

THEODORE GILL.

designation of the typical genus], a family of birds common Trogon'ide [from Trogon-Tpúyev, to "gnaw"-the to the tropical and subtropical regions of America, as well as Asia and Africa. The bill is rather short, stout, broad at the base, and rapidly narrowed forward, with the culmen is furnished with bristles; the cleft is quite deep; the nosdecurved and with the edges more or less toothed; the gape bristly feathers; the wings are moderate and rounded or trils are sublaterally basal, and more or less concealed by angulated at about the fifth primary; the legs are rather weak; the tarsi short and partially or entirely covered with feathers; the toes separated in pairs, the first and second directed backward, and not versatile, and the third and fourth forward, the anterior connected by their basal joints; the tail is more or less elongated and graduated. The species are mostly rather large and showy birds, which in great part live in the depths of the equatorial forests, often subsist to a large extent on fruits and berries, but also prey perched on the highest branches. They are believed to on insects. About 50 species are known, which have been variously grouped in genera. About 35 species represent noteles, Temnotrogon, Trogon, Leptuas, and Pharomaerns the family in America and constitute the genera Prio(= Calurus); some dozen or more are found in Asia and form the genus Harpactes and its subdivisions; and a couple of species in Africa have been isolated to form the peculiar genus Hapaloderma. The relations of the family are with the Momotidæ, Alcedinida (kingfishers), Cuculidæ (cuckoos), and allied forms, and it is a member of the sub-order Coccygomorphæ of Huxley or Coccyges of some

other authors.

THEODORE GILL.

Tur'dinæ, or Turdida [from Turdus-the ancient Latin name of the thrush-the typical genus], a sub-family or family of passerine birds, typified by the common thrushes, and comprising the catbird, mocking-bird, and

TURKISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE-TYPE-THEORIES.

related species. The form is familiar in connection with the species just enumerated, and all are essentially alike in that respect; the bill is rather slender, elongated, and subulate, compressed toward the tip, with the culmen more or less curved from the base, and with the upper mandible generally notched near the tip; the loral and frontal feathers are bristly; the mouth is also usually well provided with bristles: the nostrils are oval and naked; the wings furnished with ten moderate and rounded primaries, and with the spurious primary sometimes half the length of second quill; the second quill shorter than the fourth; in the closed wing the outer secondary reaches three-fourths or more the length of longest primary" (Baird); the legs are moderately developed; the tarsi in some (Turdine) anteriorly "booted"-i. e. covered with an undivided sheath in others (Mimine) scutellate; the toes rather long, the outer united to the middle by the basal joint, the inner mostly separate; the tail is well developed. The group is extensively represented in almost all countries except the polar regions, though sparingly in Australasia and Polynesia. The species feed upon insects and their larvæ, as well as berries and fruit. Among the members of the group are some superior songsters, such as the mocking-bird and wood-thrush of North America, etc. They mostly build their nests in trees or bushes, and lay about four or five eggs. Not far from 250 species have been made known. Fourteen species are found in the U. S., and belong to five genera. The most notable are the Turdus mustelinus (wood-thrush), T. fuscescens (tawny thrush), T. migratorius ("robin"), Harporhynchus rufus (brown thrasher), Mimus polyglottus (mocking-bird), and Galeoscoptes carolinensis (catbird). THEODORE GILL. Turkish Language and Literature. The Turkish language belongs to the Ural-Altaic or Scythian or Turanian group, and is allied to the Finno-Hungarian, Samojedic, Tungusian, and Mongolian languages. It is spoken in various dialects over a vast tract of land stretching from the Lena across Central Asia, Asia Minor, and the Balkan peninsula to the Adriatic. Several of these dialects, or rather branches, of the primitive stock-language have obtained a literary development, such as the Ligur, the Jagatai, and the Osmanli, but none of them have as yet received a thoroughly scientific investigation. Of the Uigur, most of its literary monuments have been lost; the Jagatai, which flourished E. of the Caspian Sea from the time of Tamerlane to that of Baber, is very little known; best known is the Osmanli, spoken at present throughout the whole Turkish empire in Europe, Asia, and Africa, and much used both in literature and in political and commercial business. It is very mixed with respect to its materials, half of its words being either Persian or Arabian; it has no relative pronoun but that borrowed from the Persian, and no conjunctions but those borrowed from the Arabic. Its grammar, however, is strictly Turkish, and places a sharp difference between it and the Indo-European and Semitic languages, with which it in other respects has intermingled very freely. It is generally written with Arabic letters, which are very poorly suited to express it; sometimes, however, Armenian characters are used. There are grammars by Davids (London, 1836), Redhouse (Paris, 1846), and Kasem-Beg (translated into German, Leipsic, 1848), and dictionaries, Turkish-French, by Kieffer and Bianchi (1846) and Redhouse (1857).

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der Osmannische Dichtkunst, by Hammer (1836), which contains numerous specimens of Turkish lyrical poems, excellently translated.)

Type-Theories. In chemistry, the so-called "theory of chemical types" has played a great part in the literature of the science for a quarter of a century past. The idea arose first from the discoveries of Gay-Lussac and Dumas of the replacement of hydrogen by chlorine in organic bodies, which led the latter chemist to impugn the theoretical views of Berzelius, that had been based upon his discovery of the actual, natural, and indisputable arrangement of elements and radicals in the so-called electrochemical series. Dumas believed his new facts, showing the actual equivalency of chlorine (and other halogens) with hydrogens, to be irreconcilable with the electro-chemical views, and, apparently rejecting the electro-chemical relations as nugatory, introduced the term chemical type to designate bodies derived from each other by substitution, without reference to acidic or basylie nature. Or, rather, he concluded that by virtue of such substitution the clement or radical replacing the other assumed the chemical nature of the element or radical replaced, and the resulting body retained the same type as before. This was the initial point of what is now called the "new system of chemistry." Laurent and others extended Dumas's investigations largely, discovering great ranges of facts; and Laurent appears to have been the first (in 1846) to propose the hypothesis that certain series of organic bodies were molecularly derived by substitutions of this kind from those bodies in nature which are known to furnish the materials of which organic bodies are built up. His first suggestion appears to have been that the alcohols and ethers were thus derived from the type of water, the "residue," or hypothetical group C2H5, called now ethyl, being substituted, in H2O, for one hydrogen equivalent to form alcohol, and for both hydrogen equivalents to form ether. The whole study was influenced by the universal hold that the so-called dualistic" views had obtained upon the chemical world. The hypothetical organic radicals, some of which are even yet adhered to by many chemists, were rendered necessary in order to apply the type-theories to organic bodies, as in the initial case of ethyl, cited above. Our American chemist, Sterry Hunt, in 1848 (Am. Journal of Science for Sept., 1848, p. 173), first extended Laurent's suggestion to acids, both organic and inorganic; further proposing, in a paper read to the American Association for the Advancement of Science in the same month of that year, that all oxygenated bodies should be looked upon as derived from the water-type. Our distinguished compatriot may therefore be claimed as at least the most prominent of the founders of the famous "water-type theory," from which all the type-theories have grown, and into which, indeed, it is easy enough to merge them all. In the article on CHEMISTRY (which see for more on type-theories) it is explained how all the accepted types are really referable to one-namely, that of the H2 in H20. In the American Association paper of 1848, above referred to, this idea was also fully set forth by Sterry Hunt.

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sexivalent, hexadic (or a hexad), or hexatomic.

The number of types or classes of typical compounds that has been admitted is six, which may be represented by the compounds HCl, H2O, H3N, H4C, C15P, ClW. For the two highest no hydrogen compounds are known, but it is assumed that such compounds as HP and H&W may The Turkish literature is rich, but not very original. exist, but have not yet been obtained. The elements here Much of what it contains is translation or imitation, es- combined with the hydrogen are said to represent six difpecially from the Persian, but also from the Arabic, and, ferent degrees of equivalence, or, as some express it, of of late, even from various European literatures. Lyrical atomicity-Cl being monoralent, univalent, monadie (or a poetry flourished among the Turks even before the estab- monad), or monatomic; O being bivalent, dyadic (or a dyad), lishment of their empire in Europe, but the influence of or diatomic; N being trivalent, triatomic (or a triad), or Persia is very marked, even with the most prominent poet triatomic; C being tetravalent, quadrivalent, tetradic (or a of that period, Mohammed Tschelebi, whose romantic epics tetrad), or tetratomic; P being pentivalent quinquivalent, and mystical lyrics are still highly appreciated. The gold-pentadic (or a pentad), or pentatomic; and W, hexavalent, en age of Turkish poetry was the times of Solyman the Magnificent, when Fasli (d. 1563) and Bâki (d. 1600) wrote. The direct derivation of other bodies from these typical The former is the author of the celebrated poem, Gul u ones (or rather from the type generally) is supposed to conBulbul ("The Rose and the Nightingale"), which has been sist in, or arise from, the substitution for any one or more translated into almost all European languages; and the of the equivalents of elements in the typical formula of latter is by his countrymen placed equal to Hafiz and any element, or elements, or radicals, the sum of whose Motanebbi. Of great importance among the numerous equivalencies or atomicities is equal to that of the element historical productions are the annals of the empire from displaced. Thus, it follows that they are all derivable from its establishment to the end of the eighteenth century, com- each other; as, for example, in three molecules of HCl or menced by Saad-ed-din, and continued by Naima (1591- HзCl3, by substituting for the three monads Cls the triad 1659), Reschid (1660-1721), Tschelebisade (1721-27), Sami N, we get H3N, ammonia; or to take a familiar case of (1730-43), Issi (1744-52), and Wasif (1752-73). Particu- actual derivation-when the dyadic metal zine is dissolved larly interesting are the so-called Fetwas, judicial decisions in muriatic acid, H2Cl2 react with Zn, and we have formed of entangled juristical cases, of which there are several col- free hydrogen and ClyZn, a compound belonging to the lections by Sheikh Mustafa-el-Kudusi (1822), Mufti Abd- water-type, or derivable directly from H20 by substitution ur-Rahim (1827), Numan Effendi (1832), etc.-giving a of two monads H2 for two monads Cl2, and of one dyad vivid picture of the life of the people and of the peculiar Zn for one dyad 0. An indefinite number of other similar connection between its religion and its legislation. (See cases might be cited; and this mode of viewing these theoLitteratura Turchesca, by Toderini (1787), and Geschichte | ries is now regarded by many advanced chemists as a sort

VOL. VIII.-45

of reductio ad absurdum, or at least as showing that these ing their modes of derivation: "it is, in fact, their genetheories are inconclusive and indeterminate, reasoning in alogy; and in making use of typical formulas to indicate a circle, or having no solid basis except the fundamental the derivation of chemical species, we should endeavor to facts of equivalence, based upon the different multiple com- show the ordinary modes of their generation." Kekulé bining proportions of other elements with oxygen. The has also said, much more recently-referring to the obvious term theory of equivalence is therefore being rapidly sub- derivation of all the types from each other and from H1⁄2-stituted for "theory of types," and the typical arrange- that it "shows plainly that the entire system is nothing ment itself regarded only as a convenient and artificial more than a comparison of compounds with regard to their mode of classification or notation in investigating chemical composition, not a true theory which can teach us anything transformations. Sterry Hunt himself said long since: about their actual composition itself. The several types "The various hypotheses of copulates and radicals are are therefore not classes of compounds distinctly separated based upon the notion of dualism, which has no other from one another by differences of constitution, but rather foundation than the observed order of generation, and can movable groups, in which compounds may be placed tohave no place in a theory of the science." "The chem-gether according to the particular analogies which it is ical history of bodies is a record of their changes"- -mean- desired to bring to light." HENRY WURTZ.

U.

I. By Ray, and especially Linnæus, the name was employed for all the hoofed mammals in contradistinction to the clawed and muticate (finned) mammals. These, again, were differentiated by Linnæus into two orders—(1) Pecora, including all the ruminating forms, and (2) Belluæ, embracing the equine and hippopotamine forms: Rhinoceros was referred to the Glires (rodents), and Elephas to the Bruta (chiefly edentates).

Ubii, the name of a Germanic people settled, in the time of Cæsar, on the right bank of the Rhine, from the Sieg to the Lahn, between the Sigambrii to the N. and the Suevi to the S. Cæsar describes them as being quite familiar with Gallic manners and civilization, and he found them ready to make an alliance with him and furnish him with vessels for the crossing of the Rhine. Afterward they remained faithful to the Romans, and when they were too hard pressed by their wild neighbors, the Suevi, Agrippa removed them, in the time of Augustus, to the left bank of the Rhine. Agrippina, the daughter of Germanicus and the wife of Claudius, was born in their capital, Ara or Civitas Ubiarum, which after her was called Colonia Agrippinensis, the present Cologne. The whole people was sometimes called Agrippinenses. In the insurrection of Civilis (70 A. D.) they participated only for a short time, and because they were compelled by force. Soon after, however, they became merged into the Franks, and disap-tical with the Pecora of Linnæus. This classification for a peared as an independent nation.

U'lybuschew, or Oulibicheff (ALEXANDER DMITRIWICH), b. in 1791 in the government of Nizhnee-Novgorod, Russia, descended from a Tartar family; studied at various German universities; entered the Russian ministry of foreign affairs, but resigned his position in 1831; devoted himself exclusively to the study of music. D. in NizhneeNovgorod Feb. 5, 1858. He wrote, in French, Nouvelle Biographie de Mozart (3 vols., 1843) and Beethoven, ses Critiques et ses Glossateurs (1857), which were translated into both German and English. In Russian he wrote a great number of musical essays and criticisms in various periodicals, which exercised a great influence on the development of musical taste in Russia.

II. The errors of Linnæus in his references of the genera Rhinoceros and Elephas were soon corrected by his successors, and in their works (e. g. Pennant's Synopsis of Quadrupeds, 1771) all the true ungulate mammals were combined together under the name Ungulata or hoofed quadrupeds. III. By Cuvier (1817, etc.) the ungulate mammals were differentiated into two orders-(1) "les Pachydermes," equivalent to the Belluæ of Linnæus after the inclusion of Rhinoceros and Elephas, and (2) "les Ruminans," iden

long time prevailed, and is the one found in most of the popular works on natural history up to within a few years past.

IV. By De Blainville (in 1816) the group, under the name "les Ungulogrades," was restricted to the ordinary hoofed quadrupeds, the elephants being isolated as the representatives of a distinct order named "les Gravigrades." The Ungulogrades were in turn differentiated into two groups-(1) those with unpaired digits, embracing the normal pachyderms and equines, and (2) those with paired digits, including the suilline forms as well as the ruminants. The manatee was added, erroneously, as an anomalous form of the order. These modifications, except the last, constituted a very decided advance in classification. They, however, attracted but little attention till Owen (in 1840, etc.) revived the same views, and adopted the groups

Um'bridæ [from Umbra-the ancient name of a fish-in question under other names. Accepting the division of the typical genus], a family of fishes of the order Teleocephali and sub-order Haplomi, represented in North America and Eastern Europe. In form they resemble the "killie-fishes" or "minnows" (Cyprinodontidae): the body is covered with cycloid scales, which are moderately large and destitute of radiating striæ; the lateral line is obsolete; the head is oblong, conie in profile, transversely

arched, and covered with moderate scales like those on the body: the eyes are lateral; the opercula normally developed and unarmed; the mouth is moderate, and has a lateral oblique cleft; the upper jaw is formed by the intermaxillaries as well as supramaxillaries; teeth are developed on the jaws as well as palate; the branchial apertures are ample; branchiostegal rays five or six; the dorsal fin has articulated and branched rays, and is submedian and above the ventrals; the anal is smaller and farther back than the dorsal; the caudal well developed; the pectorals normal; the ventrals abdominal and with six rays. The intestinal canal has a simple stomach and no pylorie cæca; the air-bladder is simple. The species of the family live in fresh and brackish water ponds and the waters in the eastern parts of Europe (e. g. in certain parts of Austria, Hungary, and the Crimea) and many portions of the U. S. The European representatives have been designated Umbra Crameri; the American Umbra limi, Melanura limi, etc. Although there may be generic differences between the American and European forms, they have not yet been demonstrated. The American species live, it may be said, in the mud itself, and patches of water which appear destitute of fishes may yield considerable numbers of this kind by being dragged and the bottom stirred up. The species are generally about three to five inches long.

THEODORE GILL.

Ungula'ta [Lat. ungulus, a “hoof"], a name applied in various senses to placental mammals having digits terminated by hoofs.

ungulates as a natural whole, he divided it into three sub-
ordinate ones-(1) Isodactyle or Artiodactyla, answering
Anisodactyle or Perissodactyla, equivalent to the odd-toed
to the paired-toed Ungulogrades of De Blainville; (2)
Ungulogrades of De Blainville; and (3) Proboscidea, iden-
divisions were finally raised to ordinal rank by Owen.
tical with the Gravigrades of De Blainville. These three

V. By Huxley and later writers the living ungulate mammals have been mostly distinguished into three orders, characterized by placental as well as skeletal features. (1) The name Ungulata has been reserved for the bulk of the species, which have again been divided into the sub-orders Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla; (2) the term Hyracoidea has been introduced as an ordinal term by Huxley to cover a sodactyle ungulates and approximated to the Rhinoceros by form (Hyrax) which had been confounded with the perisCuvier and others; (3) the group Proboscidea has been accepted as another order.

VI. In addition to the recent forms of ungulate mammals, there are several extinct types which are also by some authors regarded as the representatives of other orders; such are the Toxodontia of South America, the Dinocerata of North America, etc.

The order Ungulata, in the sense now generally used, is characterized as follows: The teeth are, archetypically, in full number (44), but often a number are suppressed: the molars have generally grinding surfaces, and are two or three rooted; the canines are very diversiform. generally rudimentary or wanting, sometimes (as in Tragulida. Suidae, etc.) extremely developed; the incisors are, typi cally, six in each jaw, but often wanting entirely in the upper, and are implanted by simple roots and have incisorial crowns: the legs at their proximal joints (humerus and femur) are more or less enclosed in the common abdominal integument (least in the camels); the feet are upraised, and their palmar and plantar surfaces are invested in a hairy

UNITED STATES MEAT PRODUCTION-URANIUM, COMPOUNDS OF.

707

| Schuylkill River just above Philadelphia, where autunite, a hydrated phosphate of lime and uranium, a micaceous mineral of a beautiful lemon-yellow color, occurs in small quantity. Other localities are doubtful.

To obtain uranium compounds from pitch blende it is pounded and washed to remove impurities, roasted to remove sulphur and arsenic, and dissolved in nitric acid, evaporated then to dryness, which decomposes the ferric nitrate. Water dissolves from the dried mass little but the pure uranic nitrate, which is further purified by crystallization, and several recrystallizations when required perfectly pure. From this exceedingly beautiful salt (see URANIUM, COMPOUNDS OF) pure U304 may be obtained by ignition alone, and the protoxide, UO, by ignition with reducing agents, and the dichloride, UCl2, by heating with charcoal in chlorine gas. The metal was obtained by Peligot from the dichloride by heating with metallic potassium or sodium. It is hard, but somewhat malleable, and

color approached that of iron. It tarnishes to a yellowish
color in air. It takes fire, when in powder, at a quite low
temperature, about 500° F., burning with great brilliancy
to U304, of a dark-green color. It does not decompose
water in the cold, but evolves hydrogen with dilute acids,
dissolving with a green color. It combines directly with
sulphur and chlorine.
HENRY WURTZ.

Uranium, Compounds of. This metal forms with oxygen four compounds, UO, U405, U304, and U203. A hydrate has also been obtained of an oxide, U403. The protoxide, UO, supposed to be the metal itself before Peligot first obtained the latter, is procurable by igniting oxalate of uranium in hydrogen: is brown or copper-red, with a metallic lustre, with density = 10.15. It may be obtained in regular octahedral crystals (microscopic), somewhat translucent, by igniting in hydrogen the double chloride of uranium and potassium. There are other methods. Its compound with water is precipitable from uranous salts by alkalies.

skin undistinguishable from the rest of the integument; the carpal bones are in two interlocking rows; the cuneiform narrow, and affording a diminished surface of attachment forward for the ulna (which is retrorse beside the radius); the uneiform and lunar articulating with each other, and interposed between the cuneiform and magnum; the hind foot has the astragalus at its anterior portion scarcely deflected inward, and articulating more or less with the cuboid as well as navicular; the scaphoid and lunar are separate; the toes of all the feet are never more than four in number, and the terminal joints are invested in thick nails or “hoofs;" the brain is well developed, and the cerebrum covers more or less of the olfactory lobes and cerebellum; the placenta is non-deciduate; the rectal and generative apertures are well separated; the testes more or less exposed. The order thus defined embraces a large number of species, about 225 now living. The existing forms are grouped under two sub-orders and fourteen families-viz. (I.) Artiodactyla, with the families (1) Camel-scratchable by a file. The maximum density was 18.4; the idæ, (2) Giraffidæ, (3) Saigiidæ, (4) Bovidæ, (5) Antilocapride, (6) Cervidæ, (7) Tragulidæ, all of which are ruminants, and (8) Phacochorida, (9) Suidæ, (10) Dicotylidæ, and (11) Hippopotamidæ, which are non-ruminants; and (II.) Perissodactyla, with the families (12) Equidæ, (13) Rhinocerotidæ, and (14) Tapiride. Of these, the second, third, seventh, eighth, ninth, eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth are now peculiar to the Old World, and the fifth and tenth to the New World. But in ancient times the case was very different, the Rhinocerotida and Equidæ having abounded in the Miocene epoch in North America. A large number of extinct forms are now known which connect together types that are at present far removed. Among the most notable are the Anoplotheriidæ, Oreodontidæ, and Hyopotamidæ, which bridged the existing chasm between the ruminant and non-ruminant ungulates. These had fullydeveloped upper incisors, combined with the characteristic double lunate-ridged molar teeth of the living ruminants, and thus on the one hand were related to the typical ruminants, and especially the Tragulidæ, and on the other to the omnivorous artiodactyles, and perhaps most to the peccaries. Also to be noticed in this connection are Orohippida and Anchitheriida, as well as Hipparion, which form a series with the Palæotheriidæ, and demonstrate the relation between the Rhinocerotida and Equidæ of the present epoch. The order was represented by typical examples as early as the commencement of the Eocene period, and undoubtedly very long before, although no remains of an earlier date have been yet discovered. Nearly twenty families, now entirely extinct, are known from their fossil remains. The order has therefore played a very important part in the earth's past history, and the extinct types already known outnumber the recent. Why certain of the forms formerly existent in America, but now confined to Africa and Asia, became extinct, can scarcely be surmised, as when reintroduced (as have been the horse and hog) they multiply and flourish as much as in their native lands. The order is also noteworthy as furnishing by far the largest portion of the meat food which man uses, as also the beasts of burden which he employs. Almost all the species-and, above all, the ruminants-are hunted or kept for the meat they yield, and even the perissodactyles-horse, rhinoceros, and especially tapir-are esteemed as food by some peoples. Beasts of draught and labor are obtained chiefly from the Equidae (horse and ass, etc.), the Bovidae (ox, buffalo, etc.), and Cervidae (reindeer). Their contributions in other ways are manifold; the most noteworthy are milk, hides, glue, etc. (For further information see names of different suborders and families, domesticated animals, and especially the article HORSE, in CYCLOPEDIA.) THEODORE GILL.

United States Meat Production. See page 747. Ura'nium [Gr. either from ovpávios, "celestial," or from Ovparia, a name of Venus, probably the first; named from the extreme beauty of its compounds]. Klaproth in 1789 gave this name to a metal whose oxide he discovered in the mineral called pitchblende (uraninite of Dana), which contains sometimes as much as 85 per cent. of uranoso-uranic oxide, U304. It was not until as late as 1840, however, that metallic uranium was first discovered by Peligot, what had previously passed for the metal having been ascertained by him to be only the monoxide, UO. There are quite a large number of mineral species that contain uranium, but the only one occurring in sufficient quantity to be available for the extraction of uranic compounds is pitchblende, which is found at Joachimsthal in Bohemia in sufficient quantity to furnish it to commerce, in which it is in demand chiefly for coloring porcelain and glass. One American locality only is as yet known, from the N. side of Lake Superior, of a variety calle 1 coracite, found by Dr. Genth to contain about 62.5 per cent. of U304. Several other mineral species containing uranium are known, mostly very rare, and unknown as yet in America. One locality exists on the

Uranoso-uranic Oxide (V304), which chiefly constitutes pitchblende, when obtained by ignition of the uranic nitrate, is a green, velvet-like powder, of density about 7.4. Dilute acids dissolve it with difficulty, but concentrated with ease.

Uranic Oxide (U203).—The nitrate, when cautiously heated not above 480° F., leaves pure uranic oxide as a beautiful yellow powder. If the heating goes too far, green U30, is formed. A so-called "hydrate," 0,HU2, of a fine lemon-yellow color, and density 5.93, is obtainable by heating the nitrate gently in a sand-bath, and then washing with water, as well as by other methods. When the uranic nitrate is precipitated by an alkali, instead of this body we obtain its compound with the alkali, a uranate of the latter.

The uranates are a class of very beautiful compounds. Those with soluble bases are readily obtainable as above, but those of lime, baryta, and some metallic oxides, not so easily. The present writer many years ago devised a simple method of obtaining these by digesting the carbonate of the base with uranic nitrate. Products were thus obtained, particularly with baryta and some other bases, which constituted pigments, yellow and orange-colored, surpassing any others known: but the expense of uranium compounds prevents their application in this way.

Uranium forms two chlorides, UCl2 and U4C16, and an oxychloride, U2O2Cl2. The dichloride, UCl2, is formed, as stated under URANIUM, by passing chlorine gas over an ignited mixture of charcoal with an oxide of uranium in a tube of hard glass. It sublimes in red vapor, and condenses as dark-green octahedrons of metallic lustre. It is deliquescent, fuines in the air, and is very soluble in water with great heat to an emerald-green liquid. This solution, which is decomposed by boiling, has great reducing power, precipitating gold and silver from their solutions and reducing ferric salts to ferrous.

Uranic Nitrate.-This is one of the commonest com. mercial compounds of uranium. It crystallizes in lemonyellow prisins, which exhibit a greenish fluorescence peculiar to many uranium salts. Its composition is U203.N205.6H2O, and its density 2.837. In vacuo the crystals lose half their crystal water, and effloresce also slightly in dry air. They dissolve in half their weight of water, also in alcohol and ether. When heated, they melt in their water of crystallization, and at a little higher heat decompose. Ordway states that decomposition does not commence till 1H20 has been expelled.

Uranic oxide and the nitrate are used for communicating to glass a very rich greenish-yellow fluorescent color, which is accompanied by a slight opalescence, and which is inimitable in any other way. A black color, under the glaze, is communicated to porcelain by uranic compounds; for which purpose, however, pitchblende is used directly, or uranoso-uranic oxide prepared therefrom. H. WURTZ.

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