Young (JAMES HAMILTON), b. at Newton-upon-Ayr, Scotland, in 1793; came to Philadelphia, Pa., 1801; became an expert engraver and a writer upon statistical subjects, and was the author of the famous series of geographies published by Samuel Augustus Mitchell, of which several millions of copies have been circulated, the maps as well as the text being from his hand.

Young (JOHN), b. at Chelsea. Vt., in 1802; removed in childhood to Livingston co., N. Y.: became a lawyer; sat in the legislature 1831 and 1844-45; was a Whig member of Congress 1841-43; governor of New York 1847-49, and U. S. assistant treasurer at New York City 1849-52. D. in New York City Apr. 23, 1852.

Young (JOHN), G. C. B., BARON LISGAR, b. at Bailieborough, county Cavan, Ireland, Apr. 30, 1807, son of Sir William, a director of the East India Company; graduated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, 1829; entered Parliament as a Conservative member for the county of Cavan 1831; was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn 1834, but never practised the legal profession; was a lord of the treasury under Sir Robert Peel 1841-44, and secretary of the treasury 1844-46; became a privy councillor 1852; was chief secretary to the lord lieutenant of Ireland 1852-55, lord high commissioner of the Ionian Islands 1855–59, governor of New South Wales 1861-67; was governor-general of Canada from Sept. 18, 1868, to June, 1872, and was created Baron Lisgar Oct. 8, 1870.

Young (JOHN CLARKE), D. D., b. at Greencastle, Pa., Aug. 12, 1803; graduated at Dickinson College 1823; studied theology at Princeton Seminary 1824-26; was a tutor in the College of New Jersey at Princeton 1826-28; became pastor of a Presbyterian church at Lexington, Ky., 1828, and was president of Centre College, Danville, Ky., from 1830 until his death, June 23, 1857. Author of An Address to the Presbyterians of Kentucky, proposing a Plan for the Instruction and Emancipation of their Slaves (1835), of which 100,000 copies were circulated; Universal Education a Pecuniary Gain to a Nation, and of several published sermons and addresses.

Young (JOHN RADFORD), b. in London, England, in Apr., 1799; was almost entirely self-educated; became a distinguished mathematician, and was for many years a professor in Belfast College. Author of many mathematical and mechanical textbooks and memoirs, of The Mosaic Cosmogony not adverse to Modern Science (1861), Science Elucidative of Scripture, and not Antagonistic to it, a Series of Essays (1863), On the Origin of Speech (1866), etc.

Young (JOHN RUSSELL), b. at Downingtown, Pa., 1841; educated at high school, New Orleans; was compositor, reporter, and news-editor in succession on the Philadelphia Press. Attracting the attention of Horace Greeley, he was offered a position on the New York Tribune, which he accepted in 1865, and became managing editor. He was discharged from the Tribune at the instance of the Associated Press, whose rules he was said to have violated. Started the Standard in 1869, joined the Herald staff in 1872, and travelled as special correspondent of that paper with General Grant around the world, about which journey he wrote a book. He was appointed U. S. minister to China Mar.

13, 1882.

Young (JOSUE MARIE), b. at Sanford, Me., in Aug., 1808; became a printer at Portland, Me., and at Cincinnati, O.; was converted to Roman Catholicism 1827; studied for the ministry at Mount St. Mary's College, Emmittsburg, Md.; was ordained 1837; labored many years near Cincinnati; declined the bishopric of Pittsburg 1853, and was consecrated Apr. 23, 1854, bishop of Erie, Pa., where he d. Sept. 18, 1866.

Young (MATTHEW), D. D., b. in Roscommon co., Ireland, in 1750; educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he obtained a fellowship 1775; took orders in the Church of England; became professor of philosophy in Trinity College 1786, and subsequently bishop of Clonfert and Kilmacduach; was a distinguished mathematician, one of the earliest members of the Royal Irish Academy, and a liberal contributor to its volumes. D. at Whitworth, Lancashire, Nov. 28, 1800. Author of An Inquiry into the Principal Phenomena of Sounds and Musical Strings (1784), On the Number of Primitive Colors in Solar Light, etc. (1800), An Analysis of the Principles of Natural Philosophy (1803), and other works, and left in MS. The Method of Prime and Ultimate Ratios.

Young (PIERCE), M. B., b. in Spartanburg. S. C., in 1838; removed to Georgia; graduated at the military institute of that State 1857; cadet at West Point 1858; resigned in 1861, and entered the Confederate military service; for gallant and distinguished services rose by suc

was elected to Congress from Georgia, and re-elected 1870 and 1872. ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS. Young (ROBERT ANDERSON), D. D., b. at Campbell's Station, Knox co., Tenn., Jan. 23, 1824; graduated at Washington College, East Tennessee; was licensed to preach Jan., 1845; was ordained by Bishop Paine at Clarksville, Tenn., 1848, and elder by Bishop Andrew at Athens, Ala., in 1850; has filled important stations in the Tennessee conference of the M. E. Church, South, of which he has been secretary for many years, and which he has several times represented in the General Conference; was seven years in the St. Louis conference, and three years president of Florence University, Ala.; has been since May 9, 1873, secretary of board of trust of Vanderbilt University; is the author of Personages. T. 0. SUMMERS.

Young (THOMAS), b. at Milverton, Somersetshire, England, June 13, 1773; acquired early a comprehensive knowledge of history and languages, of natural science and mathematics; studied medicine at London, Edinburgh, and Göttingen; was appointed professor of natural philosophy at the Royal Institution in 1801; became a fellow of the College of Physicians in 1808, physician to St. George's Hospital in 1810, secretary to the board of longitude and conductor of the Nautical Almanac in 1818. D. in London May 10, 1829. His principal works areSyllabus of a Course of Lectures on Natural and Experimental Philosophy (1802), in which he established the law of interference of light; A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts (2 vols., 1807), Elementary Illustrations of the Celestial Mechanics of Laplace (1821), the article "Egypt" in the Encyclopædia Britannica, Rudiments of an Egyptian Dictionary (1830), etc. His miscellaneous works were collected in 4 vols. (1855) by Dean Peacock and John Leitch, and his Life was written by the former.

Young'husband (C. W.), entered the Royal Artillery Dec. 14, 1837; became captain in 1846 and colonel 1867; was employed in making a magnetic survey in Canada 184146, and at Woolwich in reducing his observations 1846-54; served in the Crimean campaign Oct.-Nov., 1854, including the battle of Inkerman and siege of Sevastopol: was appointed secretary to the Royal Artillery Institution 1855; superintendent of contracts in Belgium and Prussia in 1857; member of the ordnance select committee in 1863; superintendent of the royal gunpowder factory, Waltham Abbey. in 1868; which latter position he vacated in 1875, when appointed superintendent of the royal gun-factories, royal arsenal, Woolwich; major-general 1875.

Young Men's Christian Associations originated in 1844 in London, where George Williams invited his felThe example was soon imitated in other cities of the coun

low-clerks to a meeting and organized the first association. try, and 2675 were in existence in 1884. Great Britain and Ireland number 427 associations; Germany has 407, Holland 396, France 72, Switzerland 131, Belgium 21, Sweden 75, Asia 22, Africa 11, Oceanica 98, etc. In 1851 the first Young Men's Christian Association on this continent was formed in Montreal, and the growth of these institutions here has been still more rapid. In 1883 the U. S. and Canada numbered 869 associations, with 108,137 members; 416 reported their annual expenses at $621,508; 312 owned ings, valued at $3,421,050, and 86 had building funds libraries containing 243,024 vols.; 80 had their own buildamounting to $590,225. The associations in the U. S. and Canada form an international convention, organized in 1854, and State and provincial conventions. The expenses of the international committee and of 27 State and provincial committees in 1883 were $59,839. Ten conferences of associations of all lands have been held: that of Paris in 1855 limited active membership to "young men who, regarding Jesus Christ as their God and Saviour according to the Holy Scriptures, desire to be his disciples in their doctrine and in their life." The last general conference was held at Berlin in 1884. The practical test for admission to the American associations is membership of some evangelical church, a rule adopted in 1869 by the international convention of Portland. Young men of good moral conduct may be admitted, though not members of any church, as associate members-that is, they enjoy all the privileges of active members, but have no influence on the business of the society. Older church members are admitted as counselling members. The aim of the associa tions is to be intermediate agents between the churches and the young men, and, besides maintaining libraries, reading-rooms, lectures, classes for secular instruction, and gymnasiums, they hold prayer-meetings, Bible-classes, and other religious meetings, and maintain an inner mission in various forms; in which latter respect they have worked with signal success. In 1857 the Ladies' Christian Union

Youngstown, city and R. R. centre, cap. of Mahoning co., O. (see map of Ohio, ref. 3-J, for location of county), on Mahoning River and on New York Pennsylvania and Ohio, Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, and many other R. Rs., 65 miles S. E. of Cleveland, and the same distance N. W. of Pittsburg, contains an endowed academy, a handsome opera-house, court-house and jail, several rollingmills, blast furnaces, foundries, a street-railway, a nut and bolt factory, and a number of minor manufacturing interests. There are about 30 coal-mining companies, and the prosperity of the city depends largely upon its coal and iron industries. P. in 1870, 8075; in 1880, 15,435.

Ypres, town of Belgium, province of West Flanders, on the Yperlee, was in the fourteenth century one of the leading manufacturing centres of Europe, and had about 200,000 inhabitants. A splendid monument of that time is the cloth-hall, a large structure in Gothic style, built in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and now occupied by different public establishments. In the sixteenth century Ypres began to decline, and its present manufactures, though very varied, comprising linen, woollen, cotton, and silk, lace, and ribbons, oil, soap, salt, and leather, are comparatively of little consequence. It is fortified, and contains large barracks, hospitals, and many educational institutions. P. 20,240.

Ypsilanti, city and R. R. centre, Washtenaw co., Mich. (see map of Michigan, ref. 8-J, for location of county), on Michigan Central R. R., 30 miles from Detroit, on both banks of the Huron River. In 1807 the first tradingpost was established here for the purpose of bartering with the Indians. It contains a high school, the State normal school, and several excellent public schools, planing-mills, a carriage-factory, whip-socket manufactories, an efficient fire department, and several capacious public halls. Two fine iron bridges span the Huron River at this place. P. in 1870, 5471; in 1880, 4984; in 1884, 5302.

C. R. PATTISON, ED. "COMMERCIAL." Ypsilanti, the name of a wealthy Greek family of princely rank, several members of which have become very prominent as enthusiastic champions of the emancipation of the Greek nation. CONSTANTINE YPSILANTI (b. at Constantinople in 1760) was appointed hospodar of Moldavia in 1799 and of Wallachia in 1802, but was dismissed in 1806 on account of his sympathy with Russia. Reinstated in 1807 by Russian influence, he incited the Servians to revolt, but, unable to carry through the revolution, fled to Russia, and d. at Kiev July 28, 1816.-His eldest son, ALEXANDER YPSILANTI (b. at Constantinople in 1783), served in the Russian army, lost his right hand in the battle of Dresden, 1813, and was made adjutant to Alexander I., and major-general in 1817. As chief of the Hetaria, a secret association for the liberation of the Greek Christians in Turkey, he raised a revolution in Moldavia in 1821, and invaded the country with a considerable force of Russian and Greek volunteers, but was entirely defeated at Dragashan June 19, 1821; fled to Transylvania; was kept for several years in an Austrian dungeon, and d. at Vienna Jan. 31, 1828.-A younger brother of his, DEMETRICS YPSILANTI (b. at Constantinople Dec. 25, 1793), served also in the Russian army, joined the revolution in the Morea in 1821, and distinguished himself greatly at the capture of Tripolitza, the defence of Argos, and the 1827 he was made commander-in-chief of the whole Greek army, but some disagreement between him and the president, Capo d'Istria, caused him to resign his command in 1830. D. at Napoli di Romania Aug. 16, 1832.

encounter with Ibrahim Pasha at the mills of Lerna. In

P. in 1870,

Yre'ka, city, cap. of Siskiyou co., Cal. (see map of California, ref. 1-B, for location of county. 1063; in 1880, 1059.

Yriar'te, de (JUAN), b. at Orotava, Teneriffe, Canary Islands, Dec. 15, 1702; educated in Paris and London; became secretary to the royal printing-office at Madrid, librarian of the royal library, and translator to the secretary of state 1740; was elected to the Royal Academy 1743; prepared a system of orthography, punctuation, and accentuation for the Spanish language, which has since been generally adopted; published a Latin grammar in Spanish verse (1771), and collected 24,000 proverbs. D. at Madrid Aug. 23, 1771. His Works (2 vols., 1773) in prose and verse were posthumously published.

dramas and poems, the most celebrated of which are his Fábulas Literarias, of which there are several English and French translations. He had many literary quarrels, and was accused before the Inquisition in 1786 of being addicted to " French philosophy," but escaped punishment. D. at Madrid in 1791.

Y'ssel, or Ijssel, a branch of the Rhine, separates from it near Arnhem in the Netherlands, receives the Old Yssel, which comes from Rhenish Prussia, and enters the Zuyder-Zee after a course of 80 miles.

Yssingeaux', town of France, department of HauteLoire, manufactures blondes, laces, ribbons, and leather, and trades in grain, cattle, agricultural produce. P. 7531. Ys'tad, town of Southern Sweden, on the Baltic, has a good harbor, some manufactures and trade, and regular steam-communication with Stralsund. P. 7025.

Yt'trium and Yttria. The words are derived from the locality, Ytterby in Sweden, of the mineral gadolinite, in which yttria was discovered in 1794 by the Russian chemist Gadolin. Yttria is a peculiar earthy oxide, contained in this and some other minerals, as XENOTIME (which see), yttrocerite, yttrotantalite, keilhanite, samarskite, euxenite, æschynite, polymignite, fergusonite. They are all rare minerals. Yttrocerite, which is a fluoride of calcium, cerium, and yttrium, is found in several American localities, as at Amity, Orange co., N. Y., and at Paris, Me. The yttria obtained by the earlier investigators was found by Mosander in 1843 to contain another earth, which he called erbia, a third one, called by him terbia, not having been since found, so that its existence is deemed improbable. As obtained by igniting its oxalate, yttria is a soft white powder, infusible, and does not slake with water like lime, though it may be obtained as a hydrate by precipitation of its saline solutions. The metal yttrium is little known. Berzelius obtained it, by means of potassium, from its chloride, and describes it as metallic scales of blackish-gray color, not malleable. This, however, contained erbium. Yttrium forms a chloride, bromide, fluoride and iodide, selenide and sulphide. Its equivalent is uncertain; Cleve and Hoeglund, the latest experimenters, obtained 59.7; Bahr and Bunsen, 61.7; but Delafontaine obtained 74.5. HENRY WURTZ.

Yuba City, cap. of Sutter co., Cal. (see map of California, ref. 3-B, for location of county). P. in 1870, 998; in 1880, 1304.

Yuba River, in California, rises by three forks (the N., Middle, and S.), which flow through deep, cañon-like gorges in the Sierra Nevada. The united stream joins Feather River at a point just below Yuba City.

Yucatan', a peninsula of Mexico, extending between lat. 17° 20′ and 21° 30' N., and between lon. 87° and 92° 30' W., bounded W. and N. by the Gulf of Mexico, E. by the Caribbean Sea, and S. and S. E. by Guatemala, the state of Tabasco, and British Honduras, comprises an area of about 60,000 sq. m., with a pop. of about 400,000, mostly Indians. The eastern coast, along the Caribbean Sea, is rocky, bold, much indented, and presenting several good harbors, but both the northern and southern coasts are generally low, sandy, swampy, destitute of harbors, and frequently visited by yellow fever. The interior is hilly and high, gradually sloping down to the coasts, but here the soil is very productive, and the climate, although hot, is salubrious. The rivers are insignificant with the exception of the Usumasinta, which rises in Guatemala, forms part of the southern boundary, and sends one branch to the Laguna de Terminos. Immense forests cover a large part of the country, and excellent timber, fine cabinetwoods, dyewoods, and gums form the principal items of export. The chief occupation, however, is agriculture, and maize, rice, cotton, indigo, tobacco, hemp, etc., are raised, besides all kinds of tropical fruits. The manufacturing industry is confined to some coarse cotton stuffs. The country was discovered in 1517 by Fernandez de Cordova, and finally conquered in 1541 by Francisco de Montejo. It belonged to Spain until 1821; subsequently it has twice been independent, but belongs now to Mexico, forming the two states of Yucatan (area 29,567 sq. m., pop. 302,319) and Campeachy (area 25,832 sq. m., pop. 90,413). (For the interesting ruins see UXMAL, CHICHEN, IZAMAL, and ARCHITECTURE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES.)

Yuc'ca, the aboriginal and also the botanical name of a peculiar genus of liliaceous plants, species of which have the English names of bear-grass, Spanish bayonet, etc., natives of North America from New Jersey and from Iowa to Yucatan, but most abundant between the 25th and

35th degrees of N. lat. About a dozen species are well characterized (by Dr. Engelmann), with many varieties, and various doubtful forms are in cultivation. The stems of the more northern species are subterranean, so that the tuft of bayonet or dagger shaped leaves is next the ground; of the more southern, arborescent and palm-like in some species, forming a trunk ten to twenty feet high, crowned by a dense tuft of prickly-pointed leaves. In Y. filamentosa and some other species delicate threads separate from the edges of the needle-pointed leaf, whence the popular appellation, "Adam's needle and thread." The root-stocks are replete with mucilaginous and saponaceous matter, which, under the name of " amole," serves as a substitute for soap in many a Mexican household, is also used by the negroes of the Southern U. S., and gives the common name of soap-plant to Y. angustifolia, which abounds between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains. A stalk rising from the centre of the crown of foliage bears an ample panicle of large and white lily-like blossoms, showy at all hours, but most so at evening, when the blossoms fully spread. The fruit is dry and capsular in some species, fleshy and baccate in others. The latter are edible and savory. That of Y. aloifolia, the "Spanish bayonet," is eaten by the negroes of the coast of South Carolina and Georgia under the name of banana, which it somewhat resembles in appearance; that of Y. baccata of Arizona, etc., is largely consumed when fresh by whites and Indians, and is cured by the latter for winter provisions. Several species are planted for ornament, and are much prized in landscape gardening. A. GRAY.

Yukon, The River, is about the thirteenth or fourteenth river of the world in length-the seventh of the Western hemisphere, the fifth of North America, and the fourth of the U. S. (although all its waters do not flow on U. S. territory). It is 2044 miles long, according to the authority of Lieut. Schwatka, an American explorer, and the first to travel the whole length of the river from its head-waters to the northern or Aphoon mouth. It rises in the Crater Lake, so named by Schwatka, a small lake of not over 100 acres in extent, in lat. 59° 45′ N., lon. 134° 50′ W. from Greenwich, and which in a straight line is 25 or 30 miles from the nearest tide-water of the Pacific Ocean, or the head of Dayay Inlet, a branch of the Chilkoot Inlet, which forms part of the inland passage of Alaska (see ALASKA), the two being separated by the Alaskan coastrange of mountains, or the Kotusk range of the Indians, which is 4100 feet above sea-level in Perrier Pass, through which Lieut. Schwatka made a foot-journey to the headwaters of the Yukon. It then flows northerly through five lakes, aggregating about 135 miles in length, to near lat. 62° N., and its course thence is about N. W., to the Arctic Circle, which it cuts in lon. 145.3° and abruptly turns W. S. W. and flows about 1000 miles, emptying into Bering Sea by five or six mouths, possibly more when fully explored-some sixty or seventy miles apart in the extreme, and lying between 62° and 63° N.

The Yukon was discovered about 1832 by Glasunoff, an officer of the Russian American Fur Company, who ascended it as far as Anvik River, beyond the Aphoon or northernmost mouth. Lieut. Zagoskin extended these explorations to Nulato, and he established a trading-station, the guard and people of which were massacred by the KoYukuk Indians. In this slaughter there fell an English naval officer, Lieut. Barnard, who was looking for traces of Sir John Franklin's ill-fated expedition. Russian explorations afterward made known the great river as far as the Newi-Cargut (Frog River). The middle section of the Yukon was mostly explored by the British through the agency of the Hudson Bay Company, in order to establish trading-stations in the fur districts. In 1848 an agent of that company went westward from near the mouth of the Mackenzie River, and descended the Rat or Porcupine River and built Fort Yukon, just at the highest northern point of the Yukon River and at the mouth of the Rat River. Fort Yukon was the farthest outlying tradingstation of that great company. From there the Yukon was descended about 100 miles by Kennicott in 1860, and next year by Strachen Jones as far as Nuklakayet, where the Tanana comes in from the S., and up to which point had been explored by the Russians. Previous to 1860 and 1861 the Yukon of the Hudson Bay Company was supposed to empty into the Arctic Ocean of Alaska, and it was so placed on the map, the Yukon and the Colville of the Arctic coast being laid down on the maps as one. Fort Yukon proved to be successful as a trading-station, and several years later a party belonging to the Hudson Bay Company descended the Pelly to its junction with the Yukon River, and established Fort Selkirk. The company agent at Fort Selkirk was led to believe from Indian reports that the river being navigated was the same that flowed by Fort Yukon. He descended it, and established

the fact. Two years later (1851), Fort Selkirk was burned and the trading-goods appropriated by the Chilkat Indians of the Pacific coast, whose trade with the Indians of the interior had been somewhat compromised by the position of the post. These Chilkats had received their trading-goods from the whites near the Pacific Ocean, lashed them in packs, and carried them on their backs across the mountain-passes, bringing furs back in exchange by the same route. About the close of the civil war the Western Union Telegraph Company attempted to connect American and European telegraph lines by way of Bering Strait, and the Yukon River was selected as its American route nearly the entire length of the stream. The employés reached the river, but their labors were not of great value, consisting subsequently of making public in English information which had before appeared in Russian. The success of the Atlantic cable led to the withdrawal of these parties. The first accurate instrumental survey of the river was that of Capt. Raymond of the U. S. engineer corps after Russian America had passed into the possession of the U. S., and had become generally known as Alaska. The Russian Fur Company was succeeded by an American organization called the Alaska Commercial Company, and at the instance of the U. S. government despatched Capt. Raymond to determine the position of Fort Yukon astronomically; and if found W. of the 141st meridian (the eastern boundary-line of Alaska), the Hudson Bay Company agents were to be notified to vacate, which was done. Heretofore the junction of the Tanana and the Yukon at Nuklakayet had been considered the neutral ground between the Russian and British traders, without regard to national boundary.

From Fort Selkirk to the Yukon's head-waters the river was explored by Lieut. Schwatka as late as 1883, and the entire river traversed and mapped by his party, and in following his expedition is found the best description of the river. Schwatka's party of six white men reached Chilkat, Alaska, early in June, 1883. Seventy Chilkat Indians were employed as porters, and they carried his effects on their backs across the Alaskan coast-range to the head-waters of the Yukon, the trail being very severe and quite as dangerous as any Alpine-climbing among snows and glaciers. Crater Lake, yet frozen over and covered with snow, was found to be the ultimate source of the Yukon. The Indian packers carried on to Lake Lindeman, the first large lake (10 miles long by 2 wide), their heavy burden, where their contract was terminated. A few, however, remained with Schwatka as interpreters and workmen. He here constructed a raft of spruce and pine logs 15 by 30 feet, sailed across Lake Lindeman in a storm, shooting a mile of rapids on June 16, and then repaired and enlarged the raft on Lake Bennett, 30 miles long. He was three days in sailing and tracking across Lake Bennett, being nearly lost in a storm on June 19.

So far the country was quite Alpine in character, although the climate was phenomenal for so high a latitude, nearly half a dozen plants that were never heard of before beyond the Canadian boundary being found. The whole season seemed to have been as advanced as at an equal altitude at the same date 20° farther south or in California. Lake Nares, 3 miles long, Lake Bove, 8 miles long, and Lake Tahko, 18 miles long, were laboriously navigated by tracking, rowing, and sailing, the country gradually opening to the eye.

Thus far the Yukon was all lakes with short connecting streams not over a mile in length; but from Tahko to Lake Marsh, 29 miles long, a river 9 miles long was entered. Around Lake Marsh the country was of a rolling character. Fifty miles beyond the outlet of Lake Marsh Schwatka's rafting-party came to what he found to be the grand cañon of the Yukon, and the only one in the river. The cañon itself is but a mile in length, and through its upright walls the river, narrowed to about one-tenth of its former width, rushes in a perfect sheet of boiling foam. These rapids continue for 4 miles farther on from the cañon's outlet, or a total of 5 miles in length, and terminate in a narrow contracted cascade. This cascade of the Grand Rapids Schwatka places as the head of navigation for powerful light-draught river-steamers, making the river navigable for such craft for 1866 miles from the Aphoon or northern mouth. Lake Kluktassi, 37 miles long, and the last on the flow of the river, was sailed across in three days, and the tedious method of navigation left behind for ever. Although their progress was more rapid thereafter, the work was rendered more severe by their being required to pry the raft daily off sand and mud and gravelbars. The site of old Fort Selkirk was reached June 13, and Schwatka connected his explorations with those of the Hudson Bay Company. His surveys were continued to Fort Yukon and connected with those of Capt. Raymond, and corrections of survey were continued to the delta.

At Fort Selkirk, the junction of the Pelly and Yukon, the scenery is grand. There commences the Upper Ramparts of the Yukon, or where that stream cuts through the terminal spurs of the Rocky Mountains a distance of 350 to 400 miles, the first 100 of which are not unlike the Yellowstone scenery in grandeur. From the head-waters of the Yukon to the Pelly, Schwatka describes the Tahkheesh or Stick Indians as an abject, miserable tribe few in numbers. Near the mouth of the Pelly are Ayans, the Pelly River being the Ayan of the Indians. Between Selkirk and Yukon are successively the Tahk-ong, the Noo-klak-o, and the Tadoosh Indians. In lat. 65° 6' N. the Yukon leaves the hilly country and enters a low level plain extending as far the eye can reach. The channels divide and subdivide, until the great river, at a thousand miles from the sea, is 7 miles wide, and in some places estimated at 10 or 15. This wide section, in the level territory filled with thousands of islands, continues for 300 miles, when the Yukon enters the Lower Ramparts, not quite as mountainous as the Upper. At Nuklakayet the Tanana enters the stream from the S., thought by Schwatka to be the largest unexplored river in the world. Here is the farthest inland and occupied trading-post on the river, and here terminated Schwatka's raft-journey of 1305 miles, the longest in the world. His further surveys were continued in a boat to the Aphoon mouth.

The Yukon is a very swift river, and is so muddy for 1400 miles from its mouth that the sediment is made noticeable in the palm of the hand. This mud has been deposited on the shallow shores of Bering Sea for ages, until mud and sand shoals have been built up 60 to 70 miles beyond its delta, making it unsafe for vessels to go within that limit. The nearest port where vessels of moderate draft can enter and anchor is St. Michaels, 75 miles N. of the Aphoon mouth. About 783 miles of the Yukon River flow in British America and 1261 in Alaska, according to Schwatka. No good maps, official or private, exist of the upper half of the river, outside of the bulletins and magazines containing Schwatka's travels.

ALVAN S. SOUTHWORTH. REVISED BY FRED. SCHWATKA. Yule [the Danish Jaul, the Anglo-Saxon Geol, the Icelandic Jol, etc., evidently connected with the English wheel, the Danish hjul, etc.] is the old Teutonic name of Christmas, or, properly speaking, of the religious festival of the winter solstice. Though the nature of the festival has been completely transformed by Christianity, and though the mode of celebrating has also been much changed, in the greenery with which we still deck our houses and temples of worship, and in the Christmas trees laden with gifts, we still have relics of the symbols by which our heathen forefathers signified their faith in the power of the returning sun to clothe the earth again with green and hang new fruit on the trees.

Yule (HENRY), b. in 1820; served in the British army in India; became minister of Indian public works; retired as colonel; settled in London, and published Fortification (1851); A Narrative of the Mission sent by the GovernorGeneral of India to the Court of Ava (1858), Cathay and the Way Thither (2 vols., 1866), The Book of Ser Marco Polo, a new translation, 2d ed. (2 vols. 8vo, 1875), besides minor translations, essays, and memoirs; was made C. B. Yuma, cap. of Yuma co., Ari. Ter. (see map of Arizona Territory, ref. 7-F, for location of county), on the E. shore of Colorado River and on Southern Pacific R. R., contains a fine court-house and jail, an excellent public school, and several large mercantile houses. Principal business, trade with the interior, mining, and navigation. P. in 1880, W. J. BERRY, ED. " ARIZONA SENTINEL." Yumas, a tribe of American Indians settled on both sides of the Colorado, near its junction with the Gila; they call themselves the "Sons of the River," and are also known under the name of Cuchans. They were visited in 1701 by Father Kühn, 1744 and 1748 by Sedelmayr, and in 1780 Spanish settlements were established among them; but in 1781 they fell upon their white neighbors and massacred them. Since they came within the dominion of the U. S. they have been faithful to the Americans with the exception of a short rising in 1853; but they are rapidly dying out. Their number was 3000 in 1791; about 900 in 1886. Their language is allied to those of the Mohaves, Cocopas, and Yavapai.

1200.

Yunnan', province of China, bounded S. and W. by Thibet, comprises an area of 107,983 sq. m., with 5,561,320 inhabitants. It is a wild mountain-land whose peaks rise considerably over the line of perpetual snow, and through whose gorges powerful streams break into the low plain. Large parts of the country are covered with forests. The fauna and flora of the valleys are tropical. Metals and precious stones abound. A peculiar feature of this province is its suspension bridges thrown across its gorges, VOL. VIII.-43

673

and consisting of two lines on which slides a wooden box containing the traveller. Only parts of the population are Chinese, and the aboriginal inhabitants live almost independently, ruled over by native chiefs, whose acknowledgment of the supremacy of the Chinese emperor is merely formal.

Yunnan, town of China, capital of the province of the same name, is situated on the N. shore of Lake Chin, and is famous for its manufactures of silk stuffs, carpets, and tapestries.

Yus'sef ben Abd'el-Rah'man Al-Fehr'i, the last emir of Spain for the caliphs of Bagdad; was appointed to this office in 746, and ruled both with wisdom and energy. But in 753 the Ommyiade dynasty was overthrown in the East by an extensive insurrection, and shortly after a revolution also broke out in Spain. In 755, however, the Arab chieftains assembled at Cordova, and agreed to put an end to the anarchy by electing AbdelRahman ben Moawiyah, the last Ommyiade, who had escaped the massacre and lived in Egypt, as king. Yussef took arms against this decision, but was twice defeated, and finally killed in the battle of Loxa, in 759.

Yus'sef ben Taxfyn', the second prince of the dynasty of the Almoravides in Africa, and the founder of Morocco, was b. at Velad Sahara in 1006, and gained great fame as a military leader. In 1086 he was invited to Spain by the Moorish king to aid him against Alfonso VI. of Castile, and he contributed much to the victory of Zalaca, near Badajoz. But after the defeat of Alfonso, Yussef began to turn his arms against his own countrymen, and by degrees came into possession of the kingdoms of Malaga, Granada, Murcia, Cordova, Seville, Almeria, Badajoz, and Valencia, and in 1103 his son, Aly, was acknowledged as his successor both in Africa and in Spain. D. in 1106, one hundred years old.

Yus'te, a monastery of Spain, province of Caceres, situated in a wild and lonely but romantic mountain-region, filled by the spurs of the Sierra de Gredos and cut up by numerous torrents which flow to the Rio de las Battuecas. A narrow mule-path leads across the main ridge, through the Puerto del Emperador, into the valley of the Ierte. Here the emperor Charles V. spent the last years of his life, from his abdication in 1555 to his death in 1558.

Yu'thia, city of Siam, Farther India, on the Menam, 40 miles N. of Bangkok, in lat. 14° 40′ N. It was formerly the capital of the empire and the residence of the king, and contained several structures of immense dimensions and gorgeous ornamentation; but in 1766 the king of Ava invaded Siam, besieged Yuthia for two years, and finally razed it to the ground; which event gave occasion to the building of Bangkok. A new town, however, soon arose on the ruins of the old, and the present Yuthia has between 30,000 and 40,000 inhabitants, among whom are many Chinese and Burmese. The river, which entirely encircles the city, is here exceedingly rich in fish, and fishing is one of the principal occupations of the inhabitants. Another circumstance which gives Yuthia some importance is its fine and salubrious climate, on account of which many of the merchants of Bangkok remove hither during summer. Close by is the famous Golden Mountain, a pyramid 400 feet high and rising in sections, of which the third contains a huge vault, 150 feet high, in which is placed a golden or gilded statue of Booddha of colossal size.

Yut'ta, town of Palestine, 4 miles S. of Hebron, is the Juttah of Scripture, situated in the mountain-region of Judah, in the neighborhood of Maon and Carmel (Josh. xv. 55), and allotted to the priests (Josh. xxi. 16). It has been conjectured by Reland that Yutta (Juttah) is the modis 'lovda, "city of Juda," in the hill-country, in which Zacharias, the father of John the Baptist, resided.

Yverdun' [ancient Ebrodunun], town of Switzerland, canton of Vaud, at the mouth of the Thiele in Lake Neufchâtel, was the seat of the celebrated institute of Pestalozzi (1805-25); has a library with Roman antiquities, a school for deaf mutes, and a gymnasium. P. 5968.

Yvetot', town of France, department of Seine-Inférieure, manufactures cotton and linen fabrics, silk, and velvet, and trades in corn and wine. P. 8397.

Yvon' (ADOLPHE), b. at Eschweiler, Lorraine, in 1817; studied painting under Paul Delaroche, and began to exhibit in 1842; went to Russia in 1843, from which he exhibited a great number of sketches and drawings in 184748, and achieved subsequently a great reputation as a painter both of portraits and historical pieces. Among his most celebrated pictures are- The First Consul descending the Alps (1853), Capture of the Malakhoff (1857), The Battle of Solferino (1861), Magenta (1863).

Z, the last letter in many alphabets, stands in English, French, and Polish for a vocalized sibilant s-sound. It is more frequently represented by 8, as in Eng., Ger., and Fr. rose, It. rosa, a sound unknown to Latin, Spanish, and South German. Its original Greek power is sd (zd) in wisdom, whence the two spellings of Ezra and Esdra. In German its sound is our ts; in Italian dz and ts; the Scotch name Dalzel is pronounced Dalyel; in Spanish it usually sounds like our th in thin, but in Spanish America it has the sound of our 8. In England it is named zed, in the U. S. zed and zee. In Scotland z was used for y up to 1543, as ze, zow, zieres, for ye, you, yours.

Zaandam', town of the Netherlands, province of North Holland, on the Zaan, an affluent of the Yssel, has numerous corn, oil, and saw-mills, extensive paper manufactures, and considerable shipbuilding. The house in which Peter the Great lived while he worked here as an artisan on the wharves is still preserved. P. 13,171.

Zabakaʼno, city of Western Africa, in lat. 11° 20' N., lon. 2° 5' E., in the south-western part of the dominions of the Foolahs, is celebrated for its beautiful and picturesque situation, for its excellent dyeworks, and for its leather manufactures. P. about 9000.

Zabism. See SABAISM.

Zacapa. See SACAPA.

It

Zacate'cas, one of the central states of the Mexican confederation, bounded E. by San Luis Potosi, comprises an area of 22,998 sq. m., with 422,906 inhabitants. forms part of the large Mexican plateau, and its surface is a vast arid plain, elevated 6000 feet above the sea, almost destitute of water, unfit for agriculture, but affording pastures for large herds of sheep and goats. This plain is traversed by the Sierra Madre Mountains, which are still more barren and inhospitable, but which contain perhaps the richest silver-mines in the world. Mining and rearing of sheep are the principal, almost the only, occupations of the inhabitants. All kinds of manufactured articles and grain have to be imported from the neighboring states; in many places even drinking water must be procured from long distances and at great cost.

Zacatecas, town of Mexico, capital of the state of the same name, in a narrow valley between steep precipices, at an elevation of 7746 feet above the level of the

sea.

It is generally poorly built, but it contains many elegant residences and several fine churches. In the vicinity are numerous silver-mines which seem to be very rich, but which are very slovenly worked, and in many cases even completely abandoned. It has a college and a fine bazaar. P. 32,000.

Zach, von (FRANZ), BARON, b. at Presburg June 4, 1754; received a military education, but left the Austrian service and became chamberlain to the dowager duchess of Saxe-Gotha, with whom he resided in Germany, France, and Italy till her death in 1827. He then settled in Paris, and d. there of cholera Sept. 2, 1832. He was a very zealous student of astronomy; was director of the observatory of Seeberg, near Gotha, 1787-1806; participated in the foundation and building of the observatories of Naples and Lucca, and published Monatliche Correspondenz zur Beförderung der Erd- und Himmelkunde (28 vols., Gotha, 1800-13), afterward continued in Italy under the title of Correspondance astronomique. He also wrote L'Attraction des Montagnes et ses Effets sur les Fils à Plomb (2 vols., 1814), Tabula Motuum Solis novæ et correctæ (1792), and Supplementa ad Tabulas Motuum Solis (1804), etc.

Zachari' (HEINRICH ALBERT), b. at Herbsleben, duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Germany, Nov. 20, 1806; studied law at Göttingen; was appointed professor of jurisprudence there in 1830, and d. May 21, 1875. His principal works are-Lehre vom Versuche der Verbrechen (2 vols., 1836–39), Deutsche Staats- und Bundesrecht (3 vols., 1841–45), Handbuch des deutschen Strafprocesses (2 vols., 1861-68), besides a great number of monographs and essays referring to the juridical side of the political development of Germany, in which he took part as a member of the North German Diet, and subsequently of the upper house of the Prussian Diet. Zachari'as, pope 741-752, increased the authority and power of the see of Rome very much by persuading Luitprand, king of the Longobards, to cede to him all that he had conquered of the exarchate; by consecrating Pepin le

Bref king of the Franks; and by the manner in which he co-operated with Boniface in regulating and consolidating the Church in Germany. Personally, he was kind and possessed of literary taste. He bought multitudes of Christian slaves and liberated them, and translated the dialogues of Gregory the Great into Greek.

Zacynthus. See ZANTE.

Zadkiel was the assumed name of a person not long since dead who believed, or pretended to believe, that events could be foretold through the aid of astrology. Stars at birth or at any critical period of the lifetime of an individual, or in the case of a community, city, or nation, were supposed to guide the course of events, so that an observation of them would lead the prophet to presage correctly all that which would subsequently happen. It is almost needless to say that this so-called science, believed in by millions, was, root and branch, merely audacious quackery. Such almanacs of astrological predictions have existed since the days of Confucius. The Latin poet Manilius wrote an astrological poem. There are many Arabian astrological almanacs extant. Cardinal d'Ailly calculated the horoscope of Jesus Christ. In Japan, India, Persia, and especially China, these pamphlets, containing wild, haphazard predictions, were known and proscribed before the first year of the Christian era. One great astrologer, Vitsang-Ti-Hinghee, is said to have been executed on account of publishing a prediction of the subversion of a provincial ruler. Yet such prophecies gain numerous readers to-day. Zadkiel is a name which of itself sufficiently savors of imposture. His almanac is in English, with utterances vaguer than those of a Delphic oracle; and yet there are men and women, reputed to be sane, who pin their faith to his vaticinations. (See ASTROLOGY.) R. C. CALDWELL.

Zadonsk', town of European Russia, government of Voronezh, on the left bank of the Don, has several ecclesiastical, educational, and benevolent institutions, and some manufactures. P. 9073.

Zafaran'-Bo'li, town of Asiatic Turkey, in Asia Minor, on the Chatisoo, has a good bazaar, several fine mosques, and a large trade in saffron, which is extensively cultivated in the vicinity. P. about 15,000.

Zaffre, or Zaffer [Ger. Zaffer], a product obtained by roasting cobalt ores with sand. It is simply an impure oxide of cobalt, produced by the oxidation of the sulphides or arseniurets present, and the volatilization of the oxides of sulphur and arsenic. Zaffre is ground up with various compositions to be used for painting porcelain, in the deco

ration of the latter.

H. WURTZ.

Zagarolo, town of Italy, province of Rome, on a hill about 21 miles E. N. E. of the city of Rome, and commanding the magnificent scenery so peculiar to this region. Zagarolo contains some Roman antiquities of interest, and many of the houses, some of which are Saracenic, are as old as the thirteenth century. This town was a fief of the Colonna for a long period, though their possession of it was often fiercely contested by the popes. In the sevenGregory XIV. assembled here a theological council charged teenth century it passed to the Rospigliosi. In 1591. to correct the typographical errors which had crept into the Bible. P. 5463.

Zagoskin (MIKHAIL), b. at Penza, Russia, in 1789; fought in the campaigns of 1812: received afterward an appointment in the imperial library in St. Petersburg: became director of the theatre of Moscow in 1820, and keeper of the armory in the Kremlin in 1842. D. in Moscow in 1852. He wrote comedies which were brought on the stage with considerable success, and novels, of which one. The

Young Muscorite (3 vols., Moscow, 1829), was translated into English (London, 1834).

Zagros Mountains. See ASSYRIA.

Zagazig, town of Lower Egypt, capital of the province of Sharkich, is connected with Suez by rail, and with Ismailia and Suez by a canal; forms the chief dépôt for the cotton produced in the eastern part of the delta of the Nile; and is increasing in commercial importance. Close by are the ruins of the ancient city of Bubastis. P. about 40,000. Zahn (JOHANN KARL WILHELM), b. at Rodenberg, Hesse, Germany; studied architecture and painting in Cassel 1817-23, Paris 1823-24, and Italy 1824-28; was ap