governor 1642. D. at Hartford Mar. 9, 1645.-His son SAMUEL, b. in England in 1632, graduated at Harvard 1653; was an assistant governor 1654-84. D. at Hartford May 30, 1709.

Wyllys (SAMUEL), a descendant of Gov. George, b. at Hartford, Conn., Jan. 15, 1739; graduated at Yale College 1758; was lieutenant-colonel of Spencer's regiment, and colonel of a regiment at the siege of Boston 1775; served through the war as colonel in the Connecticut line; became afterward general of militia, and was secretary of state 1795-1809. D. at Hartford June 9, 1823.-His grandfather, HEZEKIAH (d. 1641), became secretary of Connecticut colony in 1712, and transmitted it in 1734 to his father, GEORGE (1710-96), who held it until 1795. three generations thus held that office for ninety-eight consecutive years.

The

Wy'man (JEFFRIES), M. D., b. at Chelmsford, Mass., Aug. 11, 1814; graduated at Harvard 1833, and at the Harvard Medical School 1837; became demonstrator of anatomy and curator of the Lowell Institute 1839, before which he delivered a course of lectures 1840; spent two years in Europe, studying medicine in the hospitals of Paris and natural history in the Jardin des Plantes; was professor of anatomy in the Hampden-Sidney Medical College at Richmond, Va., 1843-47, and from the latter date until his death Hersey professor of anatomy in Harvard University. He soon began the formation of the Museum of Comparative Anatomy, to the increase of which he devoted most of his energies for many years, making extensive journeys; delivered before the Lowell Institute in 1849 a second course of Lectures on Comparative Anatomy and Physiology (1849); became professor of comparative anatomy in the Lawrence Scientific School at Cambridge; was successively secretary of the Boston Society of Natural History, its curator in different departments, and its president 1856-70; was president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science 1857; became curator of the Peabody Museum of Archæology at Cambridge 1866, and laid the foundation of its remarkable collections; published over 60 papers in the scientific journals and in the Transactions or Proceedings of the numerous societies to which he belonged; made the first anatomical investigation of the gorilla, and gave it its scientific name; in conjunction with Dr. Savage investigated the question of spontaneous generation with remarkable carefulness and impartiality; made curious researches in regard to the action of light and polar force in embryology, and especially in teratology; exposed the spuriousness of the famous skeleton called the Hydrarchus Sillimani, alleged to be that of an extinct sea-serpent, and discovered in Florida and elsewhere pre-historic human remains in fresh water shell-heaps. He was regarded as among the first of American comparative anatomists. D. at Bethlehem, N. H., Sept. 4, 1874. Among his more important scientific monographs are-The Osteology of Troglodytes gorilla (1847), The Anatomy of the Nervous System of Rana pipiens, in the Smithsonian Contributions (vol. V., 1853), On the Skeleton of a Hottentot (1865), An Unnoticed Fracture of the two Lower Lumbar Vertebræ, On the Changes of Bones subjected to Great Heat, On the Embryology of Raia batis, and Notes on the Cells of the Bee. Wyman (MORRILL), M. D., brother of Jeffries, b. at Chelmsford, Mass., about 1815; graduated at Harvard 1833, at Cambridge Medical College 1837, and was adjunct Hersey professor of the theory and practice of medicine there 1853-56. Author of A Practical Treatise on Ventilation (1846) and other publications.

Wyman (R. H.), U. S. N., b. July 18, 1822, in New Hampshire; became lieutenant in 1850, commander in 1862, captain in 1866, commodore in 1872; served on the W. coast of Mexico during our war with that country, and participated in the capture of Vera Cruz. In 1861 commanded the Pawnee at the battle of Port Royal, and in 1862 was many times engaged with the batteries and sharpshooters on the Potomac and Rappahannock rivers while commanding the Potomac flotilla. Highly commended in official despatches. Com. Wyman was for several years in charge of the hydrographic office, Washington; appointed to command North Atlantic station, and became rear admiral Jan. 15, 1879. D. at Washington, D. C., Dec. 2, FOXHALL A. PARKER.

1882.

Wymore, R. R. junction, Gage co., Neb. (see map of Nebraska, ref. 11-G, for location of county), on Big Blue River, in S. E. part of State, near Kansas boundary. P. in 1885, 1779.

Wy'nants (JOHN), b. at Haarlem in 1600, and d. there in 1677. Of his personal life nothing is known, but his pictures, generally representing prospects from the surroundings of his native city, sandhills in the background and old tree-trunks and wild flowers in the foreground, are

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highly esteemed and command a very high price. Among his pupils were Wouverman and Adrian van der Velde. Wyndham (Sir WILLIAM), BART., b. at Orchard Wyndham, Somersetshire, England, in 1687; educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford; made the tour of Europe, and on his return entered Parliament for Somersetshire 1710, which county he represented thirty years; married a daughter of the duke of Somerset; became secretary at war June 18, 1711, chancellor of the exchequer Aug., 1713, and privy councillor Nov., 1713; was dismissed from office on the accession of George I., Oct., 1714; was suspected of treasonable intrigues with Bolingbroke, and charged with supporting the rebellion of the earl of Mar, and committed to the Tower 1715, but never brought to trial, and soon liberated; became the leader of the parliamentary opposition, defending the duke of Ormond and the earls of Oxford and Strafford when impeached by the House of Commons. He was noted for his eloquence. D. at Wells July 17, 1740.-His eldest son, CHARLES, became first earl of Egremont, inheriting that title from a maternal uncle, and became secretary of state 1761. D. in 1763.

Wynkin de Worde. See WORDE.

Wynn (CHARLES WATKYN WILLIAMS), D. C. L., b. in Montgomeryshire, Wales, about 1770, grandson of George Grenville; was a member of Parliament for that county for the unprecedented term of fifty-three years from 1797; was president of the board of control 1822-28, secretary at war in the Grey administration 1830-31, and subsequently chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster 1834-35. He was an authority upon parliamentary precedents, and was a friend and correspondent of Southey. D. in London Sept. 2, 1850.-His sister FRANCES (1780-1857) kept a voluminous journal, from which was edited by A. HayQuality from 1797 to 1844 (1864). ward, Esq., an entertaining volume, Diaries of a Lady of

Wynne (EDWARD), b. in England in 1734; became an eminent lawyer, and was author of several professional treatises, among which was Eunomus, or Dialogues concerning the Law and Constitution of England (4 vols., 1767; 5th ed., 2 vols., 1822), which has been recommended as an introduction to Blackstone's Commentaries. D. at Chelsea, near London, in 1784.

Wynne (JAMES), M. D., LL.D., b. at Utica, N. Y., in 1814; graduated at the University of New York both in arts and in medicine (1835); practised for some years in Baltimore, and afterward in New York, where he gave special attention to the subject of life insurance, and was lecturer on medical jurisprudence to the New York Medical College. Author of numerous professional and literary essays, of some poems, of an elaborate Report on the Vital Statistics of the United States (1857), and of The Private Libraries of New York, a magnificently printed monograph.

Wyn'ter (ANDREW), M. D., b. at Bristol, England, in 1819; educated at a private school; became a physician; has especially devoted himself to the study of mental diseases; edited the British Medical Journal 1845-60, and has contributed to the quarterly reviews and other periodicals, from the pages of which he has collected several volumes of essays-Curiosities of Civilization (1860; 8th ed. 1868), Our Social Bees, Pictures of Town and Country and other Papers (2 series, 1861-66), Subtle Brains and Lissom Fingers, being some of the Chisel-Marks of our Industrial and Scientific Progress (1863; 3d ed. 1868), and Curiosities of Toil (2 vols., 1870).

Wyn'toun (ANDREW), b. in Scotland about the middle of the fourteenth century; became a canon regular of the priory of St. Andrew's, and was chosen prior of St. Serf's Inch (or Island), Lochleven, before 1395. D. after 1420. Author of De Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland, in rhyme, first edited, with notes and a glossary, by David Macpherson (London, 2 vols., 1795).

Wyo'ming, one of the Territories of the Rocky Mountain region, between 41° and 45° N. lat., 104° and 111° W. lon. (see map of Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming, in article IDAHO); bounded N. by Montana, E. by Dakota and Nebraska, S. by Colorado and Utah, W. by Utah, Idaho, and Montana; length from E. to W., 355 miles; width from N. to S., 276 miles; area, 97,890 square miles, or 62,649,600 acres.

Topography. The main range of the Rocky Mountains enters at the N. W., extending in a S. E. direction through the Territory into Colorado. The Wind River Mountains are the culminating crests of the main range of the Rocky Mountains in the N. W. part of Wyoming. The Snow Mountains lie E. of the Wind River Range, being a prolongation S. from Montana. This range has the valley of the Yellowstone on the W. and that of the Big Horn on the E. The Big Horn Mountains lie still

farther E., also in the N. part of the Territory. The Rattlesnake Mountains are S. of the Big Horn Mountains, near the geographical centre of the Territory. The Black Hills, which constitute the E. foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, occupy part of the E. section of the Territory, extending from Dakota in a S. W. direction. Medicine Bow Mountains are in the S. part of Wyoming; the Sweetwater Range lies on the S. side of Sweetwater River; Bishop, Queen, and Horned Mountains, E. of Green River, near the S. boundary of the Territory, being spurs of the Sierra Escalante in Colorado. The highest peak in the Territory is Fremont's Peak, in the Wind River Range. The sources of Lewis or Snake River, one of the branches of Columbia River, of the Madison and Big Horn, affluents of Missouri River, and of Green River, one of the largest tributaries of the Colorado of the West, are all about the base of this peak. The whole Territory has an elevation of from 3000 to 8000 feet above the sea; the Laramie Plains, an excellent grazing-region of great extent, are from 5000 to 6000 above the sea.

Rivers, Lakes, etc.-The N. fork of the Platte, with its tributaries, and a few of the smaller affluents of the S. fork of the Platte, drain nearly one-third of the Territory, the central, S. E., and S. S. E. portions; Green River and its tributaries traverse the S. W. section; the affluents of Lewis or Snake River are formed in the N. W.; while the tributaries of the Yellowstone, the Big Horn, the Tongue, Powder, Little Missouri, and Shyenne drain the N. and N. E. of the Territory. In the YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK (which see), of which the greater part is in this Territory, there are several lakes of considerable size.

Mineralogy. The coal-beds along and near Union Pacific Railway, near Evanston and at Rockspring and Carbon stations, are probably lignite, but they are equal to most of the better bituminous coals for all purposes of combustion. They contain from 50 to 54 per cent. of fixed carbon. They are extensively worked. Gold is found and mined in the Sweetwater region and in places on the slopes of Medicine Bow Mountains. In the Seminoc Mountains and in the Ferris mineral district, as well as at Crow Creek, 20 miles W. of Cheyenne, deposits of both silver and gold have been found and worked. In other localities, especially around Laramie Peak, gold has been discovered. Iron-mines have been opened at Rawlins's Springs, and are yielding large quantities of excellent ore. Copper, lead, gypsum, and petroleum are found.

Soil and Vegetation.-About 5,000,000 acres are arable land, and not far from 35,000,000 are available for grazing. The mountains are clothed with a thick growth of pine, spruce, and hemlock trees of large size; the foot-hills have some pine, spruce, aspen, walnut, elm, ash, box elder, hackberry, and red cedar of smaller growth, while the river-bottoms are abundantly supplied with two species of cottonwood and thickets of willows. As a considerable portion of this Territory is included in the Great American Desert, the sage-bush (Artemisia) and the buffalo-grass are, of course, very abundant, especially on the Laramie Plains, some of which are alkaline. But these alkaline lands, when irrigated, yield most bountiful crops.

Zoology.-The wild animals are the grizzly bear, black bear, wolf, prairie wolf, badger, wolverine, otter, fisher, porcupine, mink, skunk, little ermine, buffalo, elk, mule or black-tailed deer, big-horn or mountain-sheep, pronghorn antelope, hare or rabbit, squirrel, prairie-dog, gopher, muskrat, etc.; in all, about 30 species of mammals have been described in the Territory, and 124 species of birds, including 12 birds of prey; many game-birds, including a dozen or more of the duck and teal family; grouse, etc., and many song-birds; there are over 80 species of mollusks. Many of the streams abound in mountain-trout, and other fresh-water fish are abundant.

Climate. The average mean temperature of the year is for the whole Territory about 44° F. In the mountains it is in some years as low as 36°, while on the plains in the E. it averages 45° to 46°, and in the Green River region (S. W.) it is about 42°. The summer is for the most part cool. The cold of winter is at times intense, the winds and snow sweeping over the great plains with almost irresistible fury; annual rainfall, from 8 to 13 inches. Agricultural Productions.-Very imperfect returns of crops are found in the census of 1880: wheat, 4674 bushels; oats, 22,512 bushels; rye, 78 bushels. The wool clip of 1880 was 691,650 pounds.

Farm Animals. The census of 1880 showed 11,975 horses, 278,073 cattle, 140,225 sheep, and 567 swine. Manufactures and Mining.-There were, in 1880, 57 manufacturing establishments, with $364,673 capital, employing 391 hands; wages, $187,798; aggregate products,

$898,494. Coal mined in 1880, 589,595 tons.

* On farms only.

Railroads.-There were in operation in Wyoming. Jan. 1, 1882, 533 miles of railroad. The longest is the Union Pacific (transcontinental), 464 miles of which is in Wyoming. The Oregon Short Line has 60 miles in Wyoming. Finances.-The valuation of property in 1885 for taxation was $30,717,250, real and personal; rate of Territorial tax, 10 cents on $100. Total raised by taxation year ending Jan. 15, 1885, $47,744.27. The Territory has no debt. Territorial receipts year ending Jan. 15, 1885, $47,944.27; expenditures, $35,238.12. Commerce.-Wyoming has internal trade only by R. R., being without shipping.

Banks, etc.-In 1882, Wyoming had three national banks, with $225,000 capital, $83,350 circulation, $856,004 aggregate deposits. There were four private bankers, with $421,310 deposits.

Education. The number of children of school-age (seven to twenty-one years) enrolled in public schools was 2907 in 1880, with average attendance of 1920; total expenditure for public schools, $28,504.

Churches.-The Mormon Church takes the lead, having 32 churches, 98 high priests, and 3000 members. The Presbyterian, Roman Catholic, Baptist, and Congregational Churches have from 1 to 4 churches each. Population.-1870, 9118; 1880, 20,789 (white 19,437, colored 1352, including 914 Chinese and 140 Indians). Principal Cities and Towns, Pop. 1880.-Cheyenne City (cap.), 3456; Laramie City, 2696; Rawlins, 1451.

History. The oldest white settlement is probably that at Fort Laramic, where a fur-trading post was established in 1834, rebuilt by the American Fur Company in 1836, and sold to the U. S. in 1849, since which time it has been garrisoned. The Territory was organized by act of Congress approved July 25, 1868. There had been no serious fighting with the Indians until 1876, when the Sioux in the Black Hills in the extreme N. E. of the Territory attacked Gen. Custer's command and totally destroyed it.

Governors.

John A. Campbell.........1869-75 Francis E. Warren........1885-89
John M. Thayer..........1875-78
John W. Hoyt 1878-82|
William Hale... ........1882-85

REVISED BY A. R. SPOFFORD. Wyoming, Stark co., Ill. (see map of Illinois, ref. 4–D, for location of county), at the junction of Chicago Burlington and Quincy and Rock Island and Peoria R. Rs., 31 miles N. W. of Peoria, has several flouring-mills, etc. P. in 1870, 640; in 1880, 1086.

Wyoming, Jones co., Ia. (see map of Iowa, ref. 4–K, for location of county), on Chicago Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., 51 miles N. of Davenport, contains a library, a steam flouring-mill, etc. Principal business, stock-raising. P. in 1880, 729; in 1885, 620.

Wyoming Valley, in Luzerne co., Pa., was called Wyoming ("great plains") by the Delaware Indians, who, with the Shawnees and the Wyomings (Iroquois), inhabited this beautiful region, rich in agricultural resources, and in later days remarkably productive of anthracite coal of excellent quality. It is traversed by the N. branch of Susquehanna River. It was settled in 1762 by people from Connecticut, which colony claimed this region by virtue of its ancient charter, notwithstanding the protest of the government of Pennsylvania. In the following year the settlers were either driven away or slain by the Delawares, but the colonists soon returned, bought the claims of the Six Nations to the valley, and for several years were embroiled in a contest with other citizens, who recognized the government of Pennsylvania. In 1771, the British government having confirmed the Connecticut claim, peace was restored, but in 1775 a force of Pennsylvanians attacked the settlements without success.

During the Revolutionary war a large number of Tories from New York settled in the valley, which, from its seclusion, could not well be protected from hostile arms. The greater proportion of the able-bodied men were on duty

Reference for location of counties. See map of Wyoming, etc., in article IDAHO.

Formed since census of 1880.

with Gen. Washington when on June 30, 1778, a body of 400 British troops and 700 Seneca Indians, with some Tories, invaded the valley. On July 3 the battle of Wyoming was fought between this force and a body of some 300 settlers, chiefly boys and old men, who were utterly defeated and driven into a fort, the Tories and Indians murdering all the prisoners. On the next day the fort capitulated, but the terms of the capitulation were not observed, and the greater part of the inhabitants were soon compelled to flee from the valley by the Indians. In 1782, Congress decided the dispute as to jurisdiction in favor of Pennsylvania; but when authorities attempted to eject the Connecticut people from the property they had acquired in the valley, they again took up arms, and the contest lasted until 1788, when the Pennsylvania legislature confirmed the titles of the residents; but for some twenty-five years there was much litigation in regard to the conflicting claims of those holding lands under the Connecticut and the Pennsylvania grants. This long series of contests was known as the " Pennymite wars," the settlers calling their opponents "Pennymites." The valley includes parts of the townships of Pittston, Jenkins, Plains, Wilkesbarre, Hanover, Plymouth, Kingston, and Exeter, but the Connecticut colony occupied a large tract in Luzerne and several other counties. The picture of the massacre of Wyoming given by Campbell in his Gertrude of Wyoming is greatly exaggerated in respect to the cruelties practised by the Indians. Above Kingston, opposite Wilkesbarre, stands a granite obelisk which commemorates the slain in the contest of July 3, 1778. (See Charles Miner's Hist. of Wyoming, 1845; George Peck, D. D., Wyoming, its History and Incidents, etc., 1858.)

Wy'on (WILLIAM), R. A., b. at Birmingham, England, in 1795, son of a die-sinker of German descent; was apprenticed to his father; became extremely skilful in his art; was appointed in 1816 second engraver in the royal mint, the chief engraver being his cousin, Thomas Wyon (b. 1792), on whose death in 1817 he succeeded to that post, which he retained until his death, at Brighton in 1851. Besides the current British coins, Mr. Wyon executed most of the war-medals awarded during his time, as those of the Peninsula, Trafalgar, Jellalabad, and Cabool, also the civic medals of the Royal Academy, the Royal Society, the Geographical, Geological, Asiatic, and other learned societies. His heads have great force and delicacy, and are always fine likenesses. A Memoir of his Life and Works (1837) was published during his lifetime by Nicholas Carlisle.

Wyrar'disbury, or Wraysbury, village of England, county of Bucks, on the Thames, 12 miles S. E. of Eton. In the park of Aukerwyke House, close by, stands, still living and powerful, an oak tree, of which it is known from authentic documents that it was an old and mighty tree when in 1215 King John signed the Magna Charta on Runnymede meadow.

Wyse (THOMAS), K. C. B., b. at the manor of St. John, near Waterford, Ireland, in 1791; educated at Stonyhurst and at Trinity College, Dublin; studied law at Lincoln's Inn; married in 1821 a daughter of Lucien Bonaparte, prince of Canino; was separated from her 1828; was a member of Parliament 1830-49, a lord of the treasury 1839-41, joint secretary to the board of control 1846-49, and minister plenipotentiary at Athens from 1849 until his death, Apr. 15, 1862. Author of Education Reform, or the Necessity of a National System of Education (1837), An Excursion in the Peloponnesus (2 vols., 1865), etc.

Wysock'i (PIOTR), b. at Warsaw in 1799; entered the royal guard in 1817; received his higher military education in the academy of Warsaw, and was a lieutenant in one of the regiments stationed in that city when in 1828 he formed a secret union of all the younger officers of the garrison for the re-establishment of an independent Poland. On Nov. 29, 1830, the insurrection burst forth, and as aide-de-camp to Prince Radziwill he fought with distinction at Wavre and Grochow. He afterward followed Dwernicki in his unfortunate campaign into Volhynia and crossed the Galician frontier, but succeeded in escaping and returned to Warsaw. As colonel of the 10th regiment he was severely wounded at the storming of Wola, Sept. 6, 1831, and taken prisoner by the Russians, who sent him to work in the Siberian mines, where he d. in 1837.

Wyss (JOHANN RUDOLF), b. at Berne, Switzerland, Mar. 13, 1781; studied philosophy at various German universities; was appointed professor in the academy of his native city. D. there Mar. 30, 1830. He published Vorlesungen über das höchste Gut (2 vols., 1811), Idyllen, Volkssagen, Legenden und Erzählungen aus der Schiceiz (3 vols., 181522), and Reise im Berner Oberland (1808); but his most celebrated work is Der Schweizerische Robinson (1812), an educational treatise, translated into many languages.

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Wythe (GEORGE), b. at Elizabeth City, Va., in 1726; educated at William and Mary College; inherited a large fortune by the death of both of his parents before reaching mature age, and led for some a life of extravagance, but when thirty years of age devoted himself to legal studies; was admitted to the bar 1757; soon became eminent as a lawyer; was chosen to the house of burgesses as the representative of William and Mary College 1758; drew up in 1764 a remonstrance addressed to the British Parliament against the Stamp act; was elected to the Continental Congress Aug., 1775; signed the Declaration of Independence; was appointed Nov., 1776, along with Jefferson (who had been his pupil), to revise the laws of Virginia; was chosen Speaker of the house of delegates and appointed judge of the high court of chancery 1777; became sole chancellor on the reorganization of that court 1786, filling that post twenty years; was professor of law at William and Mary College 1779-89; was a member of the Virginia convention which ratified the Federal Constitution, of which he was a strenuous advocate, 1788; emancipated his slaves toward the close of his life, and furnished them with the means of subsistence. D. by accidental poisoning at Richmond June 8, 1806. Author of Decisions of Cases in Virginia by the High Court of Chancery (1795; 2d ed., with Memoir, by B. B. Miner, 1852).

ginia, ref. 7-D, for location of county), on Norfolk and Wythe'ville, cap. of Wythe co., Va. (see map of VirWestern R. R., has good schools, a court-house, excellent water-supply, wide streets regularly laid out, and is a favorite summer resort for tourists. P. in 1870, 1671; in 1880, 1885.

Wyt'tenbach (DANIEL), b. at Berne, Switzerland. Aug. 7, 1746; studied 1760-64 at the University of Marburg, where his father had been appointed professor of theology; went thence in 1768 to Göttingen to enjoy the instruction of Heyne. Before this he had begun to read through the Greek authors in chronological order, bestowing especial attention on the later philosophers and rhetoricians. In 1769 he attracted the attention of Ruhnken by his Epistola Critica super Nonnullis locis Juliani Imperatoris ad Dav. Ruhnkenium; in 1770 visited Leyden to attend the lectures of Ruhnken and Valckenaer. Through the influence of these scholars he obtained the chair of philosophy and literature at the college of the Remonstrants in Amsterdam; in 1775 made a journey to Paris, where he became intimate with Larcher, Sainte-Croix, and Villoison; was appointed in 1779 professor of philosophy at the Athenæum of Amsterdam, and in 1799 was invited to succeed Ruhnken in Leyden as professor of Greek literature and librarian of the university. Wyttenbach was thoroughly imbued with the love and spirit of the Platonic philosophy, his acquaintance with which he used in illustrating the later philosophers. His principal writings are-Præcepta Philosophi Logica (Amst., 1781), Plutarchi de Sera Numinis Vindicta (Leyden, 1772), Selecta principum Græciæ Historicorum (Amst., 1793), Platonis Phadon (Leyden, 1810), various writings collected in Opuscula (2 vols., Leyden, 1821). In 1777, Wyttenbach, with Ruhnken, established the Bibliotheca Critica, a critical journal in Latin, of which 3 vols. appeared 1777-1808. His most important work was his edition of Plutarch's Moralia, on which the labor of nearly thirty years was bestowed, undertaken at the request of the delegates of the Oxford University press, but never completed. It appeared at intervals from 1795 to 1821 in S vols. 4to and 15 vols. 8vo. D. Jan. 17, 1820. From his papers was issued an Index Græcitatis (2 vols. 8vo, Oxf., 1830).-MADAME WYTTENBACH (JOHANNA GALLIEN), his niece, whom he married in 1817, when past seventy, was a learned woman, distinguished in philosophy and literature. In 1827 she received the title of doctor of philosophy from the University of Marburg. Though German by birth, she wrote in French. Her principal writings are-Théagène (Paris, 1815), Alexis (ib., 1823), Symposiaques, ou Propos de Table (ib., 1823). (See Mahne, Vita Wyttenbachii, 1823; Dezobry, Diet. Biog.; Biog. Univ.; B. B. Edwards on "School of Philology in Holland" in Classical Studies.) H. DRISLER.

1507.

Wyttenbach (THOMAS), b. in 1472 at Bienne, canton of Berne, Switzerland; studied theology at Tübingen and Bâle, and was appointed preacher in his native city in In 1519 he began to preach against the sale of indulgences, the mass, and the celibacy of the priests, and in 1524 he, together with seven other priests from the vicinity, married. Although he had gained many adherents among the citizens, the Roman Catholic party, the council of Berne, and the bishop of Bâle were nevertheless powerful enough to drive him from his office and expose him to poverty and many persecutions. He continued, however, to preach according to his convictions, and two years after his death, which took place in 1526, Bienne became reformed.

Xan'thine [Gr. favoós, "yellow"], a name given to the yellow principle contained in flowers, to a yellow coloringmatter found in madder, and to a gas formed by the decomposition of xanthates. J. P. BATTERSHALL.

Xanthine, or Xanthic Oxide [Gr. favoós, “yellow;" Ger. Xanthin or harnige Säure], the principal constituent of a rare form of URINARY CALCULI (which see), was discovered by Marcet. It also occurs in human urine, in the spleen and liver, in the muscular flesh of the horse and ox, and in the variety of guano found in the island of Jarvis. It is artificially produced by the reduction of URIC ACID (which see) with sodium amalgam, and by treating guanine (C5H5N50) with nitrous acid. It can also be obtained from xanthic calculi or Jarvis guano, but it is most often prepared from the muscular organs of the horse or ox. Xanthine has the composition CH4N402. It separates from its solutions either in white flocks or in minute scales, which are sparingly soluble in water and are insoluble in alcohol and in ether. When distilled, it yields ammonic carbonate and cyanide, and when strongly heated in contact with the air, it burns, emitting an odor resembling that of burning hair. If reduced by means of sodium amalgam, it yields sarcine (C5H4N40). Xanthine unites with acids and bases, forming soluble crystalline compounds; the compound with nitric acid possesses a bright yellow color, whence the name of the base. Upon heating the silver compound of xanthine with methylic iodide, dimethylxanthine is formed; this is isomeric, but not identical, with THEOBROMINE (which see). J. P. BATTERSHALL.

Xanthippe. See SOCRATES. Xan'thophyl [Gr. fav@ós, “yellow," and þúλλov, "leaf"], a modified form or product of transformation of chlorophyl, the green coloring-matter of leaves. Little is known about it chemically as yet, more than the fact that by some chemical change in the leaf, generally before separation from the tree, the green matter is changed into other compounds, sometimes yellow and sometimes red, this being the first stage of decay, the final product being brown.

HENRY WURTZ.

Xanthoprote'ic Acid [Gr. favoós, "yellow," and #poτetov, "chief rank "]. When the fingers are wetted with nitric acid, they become stained of a deep and indelible yellow, which becomes orange-red on the subsequent application of an alkali. This phenomenon was investigated by Mülder, who found that the action of the nitric acid was upon the albuminoid matter of the skin, and he isolated the yellow substance, to which he gave the above name. He attributed to it the composition C34H 26N4014. White of egg and other albuminoid matters give the same compound. The stain produced upon wood by nitric acid is due to a similar compound formed with albuminoid matter in the wood. The indelibility of the stain on the fingers is due to the fact that this substance is soluble only in acids and alkalies so concentrated as to destroy all organized substances, and which hence cannot be applied to the skin with safety. Boiling potash solution dissolves xanthoproteic acid with a deep red color; hence the darkening of the stain by alkalies. From this solution xanthoproteates of other bases may be precipitated. The writer, having experimented extensively with these bodies, believes that xanthoproteic acid and its compounds may be made very useful substances in the arts. HENRY WURTZ.

Xanthorham'nine [Gr. favós, "yellow," and rhamnus, a plant], a yellow coloring-matter, contained in the ripe Persian or Turkey berries and in Avignon grains. It appears to be formed by the decomposition of chrysorhamnine (C2H22O11), which is present in the unripe berries. Its extraction is effected by boiling the ground berries with

impurities present settle, then allowing the xanthorhamnine to crystallize, and afterward purifying it by recrystallization from alcohol. It is also obtained upon boiling chrysorhamnine with water. It forms yellow crystals, which are easily soluble in water and in alcohol, but do not dissolve in ether. It probably has the composition C73H28014, although, according to some authorities, it is identical with quercitrine, C33H30017. Xanthorhamnine is a glycoside, yielding, when treated with dilute acids, glucose (C6H12O6) and rhamnetine (C11H1005). It forms precipitates with several metallic salts, and imparts a yellow color to fabrics mordanted with alumina, and a black color to those mordanted with iron salts. J. P. BATTERSHALL.

Xanthoxylum. See PRICKLY ASH. Xanthus, city of Lycia. See LYCIA. Xavier, de (FRANCISCO). See FRANCIS XAVIER (Saint). Xavierian Brothers, a Roman Catholic community of instructors, founded in 1839 at Bruges by T. J. Ryken (1797-1871). They have several houses in the U. S.

Xe'bec, or Chebeque, a three-masted Barbary ressel, formerly much used by pirates, and now used to a small extent in Mediterranean commerce. The xebec is sharp fore and aft, carries both square and lateen sails, according to the wind, has low sides, and a deck with so great a camber that the crew walk on gratings over the deck. Xebecs ship much water, but are rapid sailers. The name probably comes from the Turkish.

Xe'nia [Gr. Févia], those gifts, honors, provisions, and securities which in ancient Greece, where hospitality was a religious duty, and often formed the foundation of important political relations, the host offered the guest. The 13th book of the Epigrams of Martial, which treats of subjects relating to this peculiar social feature, is inscribed Xenia, and hence Goethe and Schiller took the title under which, in 1797, they published in the Musenalmanach about 400 epigrams, which made an enormous sensation in Germany on account of their sharp criticism of authors, books, and literary affairs in general. (See the works on the subject by Boas (1851) and Saupe (1852).)

Xe'nia, Clay co., Ill. (see map of Illinois, ref. 9-F, for location of county), on Ohio and Mississippi R. R., 87 miles E. of St. Louis, Mo., contains an academy, flouringmills, carriage and wagon manufactories, woollen-mills, plough-factory, etc. P. in 1870, 916; in 1880, 898.

Xenia, city and R. R. centre, cap. of Greene co., G. (see map of Ohio, ref. 6-D, for location of county), located in the midst of a highly-cultivated agricultural region, 3 miles from Little Miami River, on Shawnee Creek, 65 miles N. E. of Cincinnati and 52 miles S. W. of Columbus. The town was laid out in the year 1803 by John Vance, on the lands of John Paul, who donated the square now bounded by Main, Market, and Greene streets for the public buildings. The first cabin was erected in Apr., 1804, by John Marshall. Xenia is noted for the breadth and cleanliness of its streets, its broad and finely-shaded sidewalks, its numerous church edifices, and its excellent educational facilities. It was the original terminus of Little Miami R. R., the first of any considerable length constructed in the State, connecting the place with Cincinnati at an early period. This road was subsequently continued to Springfield, and the Columbus and Xenia and Dayton and Xenia constructed. Besides these, the Dayton and Ironton, a narrow-gauge railroad, passes through the place, connecting it with the coal and iron fields of Jackson co. Cincinnati Lebanon and Northern is another narrow-gauge railroad, forming still another connection with Cincinnati via Lebanon. Xenia contains numerous churches, public schools, a female college, a theological seminary, several newspapers, and a large number of mercantile and manufacturing establishments. The court-house is a handsome and commodious structure, with fire-proof vaults and other modern improvements, located upon the public square above referred to, which is surrounded by a beautiful stone and iron fence, and is devoted to the purpose of a public park. Opposite the park is the city building, containing a large and elegant ball, the city council chamber, and offices for the mayor and other city officers. The city has an efficient fire department, with steam fire-engines. Located near Xenia are the Ohio Soldiers' and Sailors' Orphans' Home, the Greene county infirmary,

The

He

and Wilberforce University. P. in 1870, 6377; in 1880, 7026. STINE & MARSHALL, PROPS. "XENIA TORCHLIGHT." Xenoc'rates, b. at Chalcedon in 396 B. C.; became a pupil of Plato, and gained his favor by his earnestness and energy, though the master was well aware of his slowness of comprehension and lack of elegance in manners. accompanied Plato to Syracuse, and went after his death, together with Aristotle, to Asia Minor. Afterward he returned to Athens, and succeeded Speusippus as chief of the Academy, which position he occupied till his death, 314 B. C. He was highly respected by the Athenians for the integrity of his character, and was repeatedly sent as an ambassador to foreign princes-Philip of Macedon, Antipater, etc. Aristotle respected him for his insight and knowledge, but of his works none has come down to us. -To be distinguished from him is XENOCRATES the physician, a native of Aphrodisias in Cilicia, who flourished during the reign of Nero. A little essay by him, Hepi rs ἀπὸ τῶν ̓Ενύδρων Τροφής (De Alimento ex Aquatilibus), is still extant, and is very interesting on account of the picture it gives of the state of natural history at that time. It has been edited by Franz (1774) and by Coray (1794).

Xenoph'anes, b. at Colophon, Ionia, about 570 B. C.; went as an exile to Sicily, thence to Magna Græcia, and settled in 536 B. c. at Elea, where he d. about 480 B. c. He is the founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy. He attacked Homer and Hesiod, whose polytheism and theogonies were diametrically opposed to the necessary idea of the unity and oneness of the Divine Being; and he protested that the universe was one, and the one universe God; that is, he taught a decided pantheism. Of his philosophi cal poems only a few fragments have been preserved by Athenæus and Plutarch, and have been collected by Karsten

in his Philosophorum Græcorum veterum Reliquiæ (Brussels,

1830, vol. i.).

He was

Xen'ophon, b. in Athens about 444 B. C.; became a disciple of Socrates, who saved his life in the battle of Delium, 424 B. C., when he was thrown from his horse during the flight. In 401 B. c. he went to Sardis at the invitation of Proxenus, a friend of his, and he followed the younger Cyrus on his expedition against his brother, Artaxerxes Mnemon, as a sort of volunteer in the corps of 10,000 Greek auxiliaries. After the battle of Cunaxa, when Cyrus had fallen and the most prominent Greek chiefs had been treacherously murdered in the Persian camp, Xenophon led the Greek troops from the Mesopotamian plains, across the mountain-ranges and plateaus of Asia Minor, to Trapezus on the southern shore of Pontus Euxinus, thence to Chrysopolis, opposite Byzantium, and finally to the camp of Thimbron, the Lacedæmonian general who commanded against Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus. In 396 he stayed in the Lacedæmonian camp in Asia under Agesilaus, and all his life through, in his actions and in his writings, he showed a great partiality for Sparta. He accompanied Agesilaus to Greece, and fought on the Lacedæmonian side in the battle of Coronea, 394 B. C. then banished from Athens, and settled at Scillus, near Olympia in Elis; thence he was expelled in 371 B. C., after the battle of Leuctra, and took up his residence in Corinth, where he remained till his death, about 354 B. C., though in the mean time the decree of banishment from Athens had been reversed. His literary activity falls, no doubt, in the latter part of his life, during his residence at Scillus and Corinth, and comprises history, philosophy, and social and moral science. Of his historical writings the most remarkable is the Anabasis, which in a simple but fluent and agreeable style gives much curious information of the nations at that time inhabiting the interior of Asia Minor. It was the first work of its kind in Greece; it gave the Greeks for the first time an idea of the true composition of the Persian empire and the internal working of its government; and it exercised, no doubt, a considerable influence on Alexander the Great. Of his philosophical writings the most widely known is his Apomnemoneumata or Memorabilia Socratis, which gives a portrait of Socrates, not very elevated, but very vivid, and of the greatest interest as forming a complement to that drawn by Plato. He also wrote Hellenica, a history of Greece from the end of Thucydides' history to the battle of Mantinea; Cyropædia, a sort of political romance; and minor treatises on hunting, finances, etc. There is a valuable edition of his collected works by L. Dindorf (5 vols., Oxford, 1831-66), and another by Schneider and Bornemann (6 vols., Leipsic, 1821–38).

Xen'otime [Gr. Févos, "strange,” and run, “honor:" the name having been given by Beudant, and having no distinct meaning, unless, as suggested by Dana, intended as a sneer at Berzelius, who announced it to contain a new metal, then held in doubt or disbelief], a beautiful and interesting mineral, essentially phosphate of yttria, but

649

sometimes containing zirconia (then called castelnaudite), and sometimes cerium oxide. In crystallization dimetric; hardness between fluor-spar and apatite; density about 4.5 (4.54, Lawrence Smith, from Clarksville, Ga.). Its color varies much. In the Georgian mineral Dr. Lawrence Smith found 11 per cent. of cerous oxide. Berzelius's mineral, from Hitteröe, which appears to have contained yttria only, with density 4.557, appears to give yttrium the molecular diameter 17, that of alumina in corundums, and of magnesium in brucite. HENRY WURTZ.

Xeres. See JEREZ DE LA FRONTERA.

Xe'res (ha'res), de (FRANCISCO), b. at Seville, Spain, about 1500; was secretary to Pizarro during his conquest of Peru, of which he wrote from Caxamarca a narrative addressed to Charles V., Verdadera Relacion de la Conquista del Pirú y de la Provincia del Cuzco llamada la Nueva Castilla, etc. (Salamanca, 1547), which is sometimes appended to Oviedo's Natural History of the Indies. An Italian translation was given by Ramusio, and a French one by Ternaux-Compans.

Xe'res-de-los-Caballeʼros, or Jeres-de-losCaballeros, town of Spain, province of Badajoz, is picturesquely situated at the foot of Sierra Morena, surrounded by an old Moorish wall and well built. P. 8295.

Xerx'es, king of Persia 486-465 B. C., b. about 519, the oldest son of Darius Hystaspis and Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus; succeeded to the throne on the death of his father in preference to his three elder brothers, sons of Darius by his first wife, a daughter of Gobryas. Herodotus calls himn Cowardly, cruel, and incompetent, but the facts related of him do not seem to warrant this judgment. In the picture which Herodotus gives of the war between the Greeks and the Persians, and which is in every respect one of the

grandest pictures history contains, the part Xerxes plays is by no means a very prominent one. The war was not a contest between a regular social order on the one side and a single person, possessed of a tremendous ambition, and wielding, by his talents, his position, his good fortune, an enormous power, on the other. There is nothing in this war reminding the reader of the career of Tamerlane or Gengis Khan. The contest was one between two different phases of civilization-the one vague and fantastic in its purposes, loose and unjust in its organization, awkward and cruel in its working, but developed to the highest degree of splendor and power which it was capable of; the other perfectly clear and definite in all its aspirations, firm and nimble in its organization, shrewd and generous, full of tricks and full of reverence in all its devices, but very young yet, hardly more than a boy in its plays and in its passions. In this contest much cowardice, cruelty, and incompetence became apparent on the Persian side, but they characterize the Eastern civilization rather than the person of Xerxes. Immediately after his accession to the throne an insurrection took place in Egypt, but with one rapid campaign he suppressed it, and he then commenced his preparations for the war against the Greeks. They lasted for four years, and resulted in the largest military armament the world ever saw. The Egyptians and Phoenicians furnished the fleet, 1207 triremes and 3000 smaller vessels, manned with about 500,000 men; and in order to preserve this fleet from the fate which overtook Mardonius's in 492 B. c. at Mount Athos, a canal was dug from Strymonic to the Singitie Gulf a work which cost the labor of several thousand

workmen for nearly three years. The army was composed of contingents from all the countries between China and Sahara, and between the Black and the Arabian sea; forty-six nations were represented in the camp of Xerxes at Cratilla in Cappadocia, each with its own peculiar equipment and method of war. Immense stores of provision were accumulated at regular stations along the whole line of march from Cratilla to Athens, and a bridge was thrown across the Hellespont from Abydos to Sestos. A storm destroyed the bridge, and Xerxes ordered the engineers who had built it to be put to death. This was certainly very cruel, according to Greek views, but when we remember that at the same time he ordered the waters of the strait to be scourged as a kind of punishment, and a set of fetters to be cast into them as a means of handcuffing their waves, we feel that we are in another world, in which Greek views of morality cannot be used as measurement of personal character. A new bridge was constructed, and for seven days and nights one continuous line of soldiery marched across it. At Doriscus in Thrace, in the plains on the Hebrus, the gigantic army halted, and the great king, the tallest and handsomest man of the whole host, inspected and numbered it: 10,000 soldiers were packed as closely as possible in a square, and a wall raised around them. The whole army was then poured, portion after portion, into this square, which was filled 170 times, equalling 1,700,000 men. When to these are added