their bud-like, tactile ends, return sensations to the spinal axis and to the brain; the nerves of the head communicating directly. The sensory nerves are cognizant of pain, heat and cold, size, shape, roughness, and various physical qualities of special materials and objects. This power is developed to a variable degree upon different surfaces, the tactile sensibility of some, as the finger-tips and tongue, being very acute, other parts being relatively obtuse. The acuteness of touch is due in part to the number and distribution of ultimate nerve-fibres, in part to habitual education of the part. The part which has the most finely-educated touch, the tips of the fingers, may be far less susceptible to pain, to heat and cold, or to tickling. The tactile sensibility of parts is measured by means of needlepoints in arms movable upon a graduated bar-the instrument termed the "æsthesiometer." The shortest distance at which the surface appreciates distinct perceptions of the two points is thus recorded. From the experiments of Valentin the following will suffice to illustrate. The unit of measure is a line, one-twelfth of an inch :

The finger, tongue, toes, and other surfaces may be highly educated. Each artisan in his special line acquires wonderful tactile recognition of the kind and quality of fabrics, minute sizes, shapes, and relative smoothness of surfaces. The blind learn to read the raised alphabet, recognize persons by feeling their features, and manufacture various articles, many of delicate structure. The part, as the region of the trifacial nerve-the face-which is sensitive to pain, but deficient in touch, has its nerves distributed more deeply beneath the superficial tissues. In the sensitive tactile part at the finger-tip the touch-corpuscles, or nerve-termini, are situated near the surface, constituting sensitive papillæ ; as many as 108 have been found in one-fiftieth of a square inch. (See nerve-fibres and corpuscles in article HISTOLOGY.) E. DARWIN HUDSON, JR. REVISED BY WILLARD PARKER. Touch'stone, a piece of black basalt, or, better, of the bituminous jasper called Lydian stone. Small bars of gold, silver, and of various known alloys are prepared, and kept as standards of comparison. The goldsmith makes a streak upon the touchstone with the metal to be tested, and beside it makes other streaks with the bars, which are called touchneedles. A rude qualitative analysis is made in this way, the artisan judging of the purity of the gold or silver by the known fineness of that metal which makes the streak nearest like that of the metal tested. The metal thus thinly spread on the stone may be tested with acid, which discolors base metal when present.

Touch'wood, or Spunk. (1) The dried fungus Polyporus igniarius, used in getting fire with flint and steel; also employed as a port-fire. (See AMADOU.) (2) Also, the decayed and crumbling wood of the ash or willow which has undergone dry rot. It is used for the same purposes as the foregoing; and it is remarkable that close examination shows that such wood is always the seat of a growth of fungi much like that referred to above. All the varieties of spunk are much improved by wetting with solution of nitrate or chlorate of potash and then drying. Spunk, although a native product, is also imported to this country from Europe. It is also called punk.

Toughened Glass. See GLASS, by C. G. LELAND, A. M. Toul, town of France, department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, on the Moselle, is fortified, has a fine cathedral, and manufactures lace, calicoes, tiles, faïence, vinegar. P. 10,012.

Toulmin (HARRY), son of Joshua, b. at Taunton, England, in 1767; was several years a dissenting minister at Chorobert, Lancashire; settled at Norfolk, Va., 1793; was president of Transylvania College 1794-96; secretary of state of Kentucky 1796-1804; was appointed U. S. district judge of Mississippi 1804; passed his later years in Alabama; assisted in framing the constitution of that State, and served in its legislature. D. in Washington co., Ala., Nov. 11, 1823. Author of A Description of Kentucky (1792), Collection of the Acts of Kentucky (1802), Magistrate's Assistant, A Digest of the Territorial Laws of Alabama (1823), and other publications, and aided James Blair in the preparation of his Review of the Criminal Law of Kentucky (1804). Toulmin (JOSHUA), D. D., b. in London, England, May 11, 1740; educated at St. Paul's school and at the dissenting academy of Dr. S. M. Savage; was for some time min

ister of a dissenting congregation at Colyton, Devonshire; became in 1765 pastor of a Baptist church at Taunton, where he also conducted the business of a bookseller; subsequently adopted Unitarian views; became prominent in their advocacy, and was pastor of Dr. Priestley's former church at Birmingham from 1804 to his death at that place July 23, 1815. Author, among other works, of Memoirs of Faustus Socinus (1777), Dissertations on the Internal Eridences of Christianity (1785), of biographies of John Biddle (1789), Dr. Priestley (1804), and Rev. Samuel Bourne (1809), and was editor of Rev. Charles Bulkley's posthumous Notes on the Bible (3 vols. 1802) and of Daniel Neal's History of the Puritans (Bath, 5 vols. 1793-97), with notes and a memoir of the author, and subsequently published as a supplement An Historical View of the State of the Protestant Dissenters in England under King William (1814). A vol. of his Posthumous Discourses was published in 1818.

Toulon', town of France, department of Var, at the head of a narrow but deep inlet of the Mediterranean, from which it rises like an amphitheatre on an acclivity, leaning against a row of lofty hills which encircle the bay. Next to Brest, Toulon is the principal naval station of France, and a fortress of immense strength. It is surrounded by a double bastioned wall, and all the commanding heights in the neighborhood bristle with forts and redoubts. The harbor is double; one part, given up to commerce, is lined with convenient quays; the other, arranged for naval purposes, is surrounded with shipbuilding docks, cannonfoundries, ropewalks, magazines, arsenals, schools, hospitals, barracks, and naval establishments of every description; and this part of the harbor is separated from the roadstead by hollow but bombproof moles lined with batteries. Toulon carries on a considerable trade with Algeria. P. 70,103.

Toulon, cap. of Stark co., Ill. (see map of Illinois, ref. 4-D, for location of county), on Rock Island and Peoria R. R., 37 miles N. W. of Peoria. P. in 1870, 904; in 1880, 967.

Toulouse', city of France, capital of the department of Haute-Garonne, had 136,627 inhabitants in 1881, and is situated in a fertile plain on the Garonne and the Canal du Midi. Although it contains several beautiful and interesting monuments; as a whole, however, it has no architectural interest, the streets being narrow, crooked, and badly paved, the houses built of brick and without any characteristic style. Of the cathedral, dedicated to St. Stephen, the nave dates from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the front façade from the fifteenth. The church of St. Sernin is one of the most beautiful Romanesque structures in France, commenced in the eleventh century, completed in the fifteenth, 116 mètres long, 32 mètres broad, and with a tower 64 mètres high. The churches of St. Aubin, St. Nicolas, the Jesuits, etc., are also remarkable. Very interesting are the edifices of the Jacobins from the beginning of the fourteenth century, now the seat of the faculties and the library, and among the other public buildings the Hôtel de Ville, a magnificent building, constructed by Cammas (1750-60), and ornamented with columns and beautiful sculptures; the palais de justice. in front of which stands the bronze statue of Cujas by Valois; the museum, formerly an Augustine monastery, containing a unique collection of objects from the Stone age, and rich collections of paintings and sculptures, among which are 40 marble busts of Roman emperors, found at Calagorris; the public library, with 60,000 volumes and 7000 manuscripts; the Hôtel d'Assezat, a beautiful structure of the sixteenth century; the Maison de Pierre, also of the sixteenth century, heavy, but powerful and original, etc. The Pont Neuf has suffered frequently by the inundations of the Garonne, which have carried off several bridges both above and below; at one end of the Pont Neuf stand the waterworks, which furnish Noticeable the city daily with 5,000,000 litres of water. promenades are the Jardin Royal, the Allée St. Michel, St. Etienne, des Zéphyrs, des Soupirs, and the Grande Allée, all of which connect in the Grand Rond or Boulingrin. Toulouse is the residence of an archbishop, and has seminaries, monasteries, etc., a court for the departments of Haute-Garonne, Tarn, Tarn-et-Garonne, and Ariège, a commercial court, faculties of theology, medicine, and law, many special and general schools, and numerous benevolent institutions. It is also the residence of the commander of the 12th army corps and the 34th division, and has military schools, arsenals, powder-factories, etc. The manufacturing industry is very important, especially in cloth, woollen and cotton fabrics, machinery and agricultural implements, candles, oil, soap, oilcloth, paper, paper-hangings, etc. The commerce is very active, especially in grain (2,000,000 heetolitres annually), wine, marbles from the Pyrenees, wood, Four large fairs for cloth, woollens, and cattle are held annually.

etc.

quarries. P. 5556.

61

III.

Tourcoing', town of France, department of North, is a large manufacturing place, where great quantities of wool, cotton, and flax are spun and woven into very various kinds of fabrics; its breweries, distilleries, and sugarrefineries are also important. P. 51,896.

Tourgee (ALBION WINEGAR), LL.D., b. May 2, 1838, at Williamsfield, O.; educated at University of Rochester, N. Y.; served in U. S. army in the civil war of 186165, and was twice wounded; after the war, settled in the practice of the law at Greensboro', N. C., and at the Southern loyalist convention in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1866, prepared the report on the condition of the Southern States; in 1868 became judge of N. C. superior court. With Messrs. Barringer and Rodman he prepared A Code of Civil Procedure for North Carolina (1868); became ed. of Our Contiment (1882); author of An Appeal to Cæsar (1884).

Tourlaville', town of France, department of Manche, has large stone-quarries in its vicinity, and manufactures glass, mirrors, tiles, and pottery. P. 6207.

Tourmaline. See PRECIOUS STONES.

Tour'nament, or Tour'ney, a military pageant of the Middle Ages, in which two armed bands of knights contended in a mock fight for the purpose of exhibiting their strength, skill, and courage, or for the honor of the ladies attending. Strictly a single combat of this kind was called a joust, but the distinction is not always appa: rent. The knights were armed with lance and sword, and depended for defence chiefly upon the strength of their armor, the weapons being used chiefly for offensive purposes. The contestants were usually mounted, and the object of each party was to unhorse as many gentlemen and to break as many spears as possible. From a dangerous and exciting struggle the tournament finally degenerated into a frivolous court pageant, conducted according to a punctilious heraldic formula.

Tournay', an old but very handsome and interesting town of Belgium, province of Hainaut, was fortified by Vauban, and is on the Scheldt, which here is crossed by several elegant bridges, and lined with quays which are planted with trees and afford beautiful promenades. It contains many fine edifices, among which the cathedral is the most remarkable, and important manufactures of carpets, porcelain, hosiery, leather, and liqueurs. P. 31,003.

Tournefort', de (JOSEPH PITTON), b. at Aix, France, June 5, 1656; studied botany and travelled extensively in Southern Europe; was made professor at the Jardin des Plantes in Paris in 1683; went to the Levant with the support of Louis XIV. 1700-02; was appointed professor of medicine at the Collège de France. D. at Paris Nov. 28, 1708. His Eléments de Botanique (3 vols., 1694) he translated in 1700 into Latin, Institutiones Rei Herbaris, and this translation was republished with additions by Jussieu in 1719, and translated into English (London, 1719-30). also wrote Histoire des Plantes qui paraissent aux Environs de Paris, avec leur Usages dans la Médicine (1698), enlarged by Jussieu in 1725, and translated into English by Martyn (London, 1732), and Voyage du Lerant (2 vols., 1717; translated into English, 1741).

He

Tour'niquet [Fr.], an instrument for checking the flow of blood from wounds or during surgical operation by means of pressure applied to the principal artery supplying the blood. A rude but often very useful tourniquet may be made by tying a handkerchief around the wounded limb between the heart and the wound, passing a stick through the handkerchief, and then twisting it till the flow of blood is checked. In the more effective forms a pad is strongly pressed against the main artery by means of a screw.

Tournus', town of France, department of Saône-etLoire, on the Saone, manufactures potash, beetroot-sugar,

Tou'ro (JUDAH), b. at Newport, R. I., June 16, 1775, son of Rev. Isaac, a native of Holland, who in 1762 became rabbi of the Jewish synagogue at Newport; engaged in mercantile business in the counting-house of an uncle, in whose employ he sailed to the Mediterranean as supercargo 1798, on which occasion he was victorious in a desperate conflict with a French privateer; settled in New Orleans as a merchant 1802; served as a volunteer at the battle of New Orleans 1815, where he was severely wounded and permanently injured by a cannon-ball; acquired a large fortune, of which he made a most liberal use, contributing $10,000 to the Bunker Hill Monument Association, giving a valuable building-lot for the erection of the First Congregational church at New Orleans, and bequeathing at his death, which occurred at New Orleans Jan. 18, 1854, most of his property to the public charitable institutions of that city. Among them was the Touro Almshouse, occupied during the civil war as barracks for colored troops, by whom it was burned.

Tours, town of France, capital of the government of Indre-et-Loire, on a small strip of land between the Cher and the Loire, which here is crossed by one of the most magnificent bridges in Europe, and lined with handsome quays and finely-planted promenades. It has a magnificent cathedral, several other remarkable edifices, and many good educational institutions. Silk manufactures were first established here by Henry IV., and during Richelieu's time more than 40,000 hands were employed in this branch of industry. But the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes drove the workmen into exile, and gave the city a blow from which it never recovered, though its manufactures of silk stuffs, ribbons, serges, rugs, starch, and wax candles are still extensive. P. 52,209.

Tourville', de (ANNE HILARION DE COTENTIN), COUNT, b. at Tourville, department of La Manche, France, Nov. 24, 1642; was educated for the navy, and made a captain in 1667; distinguished himself in the battle of Astoga, 1676; commanded the vanguard in the battle of Palermo, 1678; made several successful expeditions against the pirates of Northern Africa 1682-88: was created a vice-admiral in 1689; defeated a Dutch-English fleet off the Isle of Wight July 20, 1690, and pursued the English to the mouth of the Thames; attacked, by positive orders of the king, a Dutchsuperior to his own, and retreated safely into port after English fleet off La Hogue May 28, 1692, though it was far twelve hours' fight; was made a marshal in 1693, and defeated and destroyed a Dutch-English fleet off Cape St. Vincent May 26, 1693. On the outbreak of the Spanish war of succession he was made commander-in-chief of the naval force in the Mediterranean of the two united powers, but d. in Paris May 28, 1701.

Tous les Mois, the starch of the tubers of Canna edulis, a marantaceous plant cultivated in Peru, Trinidad, and St. Kitts. It is prepared much as ARROW-Roor (which see). It is agreeable food for invalids and infants. Other

species of canna are probably employed also.

Toussaint'(FRANÇOIS DOMINIQUE), surnamed L'OUVERTURE, b. at Breda, near Cape St. François, Hayti, in 1743, of slave parents of pure negro blood, his father, a native African and the son of a chieftain, having been sold by slave-traders to the Count de Noé, on whose estate he was born; was known in his youth as TOUSSAINT BREDA; was favored by the director of the count's estate, M. Bayon de Libertas, who advanced him from the position of coachman to the supervision of the sugar manufactory, affording him also facilities for learning to read and write; was much impressed by reading the denunciations of slavery in the Abbé Raynal's History of the European Colonies in the East and West Indies; remained quiet, and apparently contented with his lot, during the slave insurrection and massacres of 1791, though strongly urged by the insurgents to join them; but after securing the escape of his former benefactor, M. Bayon, with his family and personal property, entered the negro army, at first in a medical capacity, having long since enjoyed some note for his knowledge of simple remedies: was soon advanced to the post of brigadiergeneral distinguished himself by the capture of an entire army of whites under Brandicourt, the occupation of Dondon, Marmelade, and Gonaives (1795), and the defeat of the French colonel Desfourneaux: rose to be commanderin-chief of the negroes: acted at first in concert with the Spanish forces, and against the English, French, and mulattoes, but ultimately concluded to accept the proposals of the French republic, which offered the abolition of slavery and an integral union with France: succeeded in winning the other negro leaders to his views: joined his forces with those of Laveaux, the French commander, who gave him the rank of general of division; made a vigorous campaign

American Society (Lond., 2 vols., 1870), and other works, and a contributor to English and American periodicals.

Town [Old English tun, from tynan, to "enclose"], a term which has several quite different significations. It is often employed both in England and the U. S., in familiar language, as a synonym of any city, great or small, as in the expression "out of town," but more especially as a vague term nearly synonymous with "small city" in alluding to foreign countries. In England it technically denoted a municipality created by royal charter or possessing immemorial privileges. In the U. S., besides the vague meaning of the word, it has a more precise meaning as a subdivision of a county, without reference to its population, so that there are many townships entirely uninhabited. The political status of the township varies largely according to locality. In the New England States the township is the original political entity, and possesses large faculties of self-government, while the county is but an aggregation of towns, chiefly for judicial convenience. In the Middle and Western States the township enjoys considerable powers of self-government, but is subordinated in many things to the county, and in the Southern States generally the township has no separate powers whatever, being merely a geographical subdivision of the county.

Town (SALEM), LL.D., b. at Belchertown, Mass., Mar. 5, 1779; was for forty years a teacher in the State of New York; was at one time elected to the New York senate, and resided many years in Aurora. D. at Greencastle, Ind., Feb. 24, 1864. Author of A System of Speculative Masonry (New York, 1822), An Analysis of the Derivative Words of the English Language (1830), of a Speller and Definer, etc., and with Nelson M. Holbrook, of a Series of School Readers, of which millions of copies were sold.

Town'ley (CHARLES), b. at Townley Hall, Lancashire, England, Oct. 1, 1737, of a Roman Catholic family; received his education on the Continent under the tutorship of the celebrated John Turberville Needham; resided at Rome 1765-72, engaged in the study of antiquities, and enjoying in that pursuit the advice and experience of Winckelmann and other celebrated archæologists; devoted his large fortune to the formation of a magnificent collection of ancient art, which he subsequently largely increased through his agents and by the purchase of the Nollekens collection, and arranged his museum in two houses which he purchased in Park street, Westminster, where he d. Jan. 3, 1805. The Townley Marbles" were purchased by the nation for £20,000, and in 1814 his bronzes, coins, and gems were also Required for £8200. They now form part of the GræcoRoman collection in the British Museum, of which institution Mr. Townley had been a trustee. Author of Antiquities discovered at Ribchester (London, folio, 1800).

Townley (JAMES), b. at Manchester, England, May 11, 1774, of parents belonging to a Wesleyan congregation, became a local preacher at the age of nineteen, and was a regular minister from 1796 to 1832. D. Dec. 12, 1833. He became secretary-general of Wesleyan Missionary Society in 1827, and presided over the conference at Sheffield in 1829 and over the Irish conference in 1830. He was well versed in all biblical matters, and wrote, among other works, the excellent Illustrations of Biblical Literature, exhibiting the History and Fate of the Sacred Writings, from the Eur liest Period to the Present Century, including biographical

notices of translators and other eminent biblical scholars (London, 1821; New York, 1842).

Towns (GEORGE W. B.), b. in that part of Wilkes co., Ga., now embraced within the county of Taliaferro, May 4, 1802. Ill health in youth prevented him from receiving a collegiate elucation; began life as a merchant, but afterward studied lew and moved to Alabama, where he was admitted to the bar in 1824, and for a time editor of a political newspaper; in 1826 returned to Georgia and settled in Talbot co., where he pursued his profession; served for several years in both branches of the legislature, and was a member of Congress from 1835 to 1839; was re-elected and served from 1845 to 1847. In the latter year he was elected governor of Georgia for two years, and re-elected in 1849. The most marked event in his administration was the calling of the sovereign State convention in 1850 to consider what action Georgia would take in reference to the admission of California into the Union, in conformity with an act of the legislature in 1849-50. California was admitted by act of Congress Sept. 7. 1859, as one of the series of the measures known as the adjustment of the slavery questions of that year. Soon after the passage of these measures, Messrs. Cobb, Toombs, Stephens, and others of the Georgia delegation addressed Gov. Towns, urging him not to call the convention, as they thought the admission of California was proper under the circumstances. He, however, called the convention, which assembled in 1850. A most exciting canvass took place in the election of delegates to that con

63

vention, in which the most distinguished defenders of the action of Congress were Messrs. Cobb, Toombs, and Stephens. An overwhelming majority was returned in favor of sustaining the action of Congress. Hon. Charles J. Jenkins was chairman of the committee to whom the subjectmatter was referred; Messrs. Toombs and Stephens, members of the convention, were on the committee, the result of which was the presentation and adoption of what has ever since been known as the "Georgia Platform" of 1850, in which the admission of California was sustained, and all the other adjustment measures were accepted as a final settlement of the questions involved. Gov. Towns was a man of great equanimity of temper and amenity of manners, combined with generosity and magnanimity. D. at Macon, Ga., July 15, 1854. ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS.

Townsend (EDWARD DAVIS), b. at Boston Aug. 22, 1817. His father (David S. T.) served in the war of 1812, losing a leg on the Niagara frontier. His paternal grandfather was a surgeon in the army of the Revolution, his maternal grandfather being Elbridge Gerry, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. Townsend was educated at the Public Latin School in Boston, and entered Harvard University in 1832, but receiving a cadet's appointment at West Point the next year, abandoned the collegiate course and entered the U. S. Military Academy, graduating in 1837, when appointed second lieutenant of the 2d Artillery, of which he was for eight years adjutant, serving in Florida and the Cherokee country. captain in the adjutant-general's department in 1846, he served as assistant adjutant-general of the military division of the Pacific four years; as chief of staff to Lieutenant-General Winfield Scott in 1861, and on his retirement was attached to the adjutant-general's office, war department, of which (Mar., 1863) he was placed in charge; was assigned to the charge of arrangements for rehoisting the U. S. flag over the ruins of Fort Sumter, Apr., 1865; promoted adjutant-general, with rank of brigadier-general, Feb. 22, 1869; bvt. maj.-gen. Mar. 13, 1865. Retired 1880.

Made

Townsend (ELIZA), b. in Boston, Mass, in 1789; was an anonymous contributor of well-written poems to the Monthly Anthology, the Unitarian Miscellany, the Port Folio, and other periodicals, specimens of which have been included in all the manuals of American literature. D. at A collection of her best poems was privately printed in 1856 by her sister, Mary P. Townsend (d. 1861). (See Griswold's Female Poets of America, and an obituary notice by Rev. Dr. Convers Francis in Boston Advertiser 1854.)

Boston Jan. 12, 1854.

Townsend (FRANKLIN). See APPENDIX.

Townsend (GEORGE ALFRED), b. at Georgetown, Del., in 1841; graduated at the Philadelphia High School 1859; became news editor of the Philadelphia Inquirer, and subsequently city editor of the Press in 1862 war-correspondent of the New York Herald, in which he reported the Peninsular campaign; visited England and France; wrote for several London periodicals; returned to the U. S. early in 1865; war-correspondent of the New York World, for which he narrated over his own signature the incidents of the close of the war, the assassination of Pres. Lincoln, and the disbandment of the great armies, on which subjects he lectured with great success; travelled again in

Europe 1866-67; described in correspondence with American papers the Austro-Prussian war of 1866 and the Paris Exposition of 1867; reported in 1867 the impeachment of Pres. Johnson for six newspapers, and was for several years from 1868 on the staff of the Chicago Tribune as editorial writer and correspondent. Several volumes of his newspaper correspondence have been published; he has also written a volume of poems and a novel entitled Lost Abroad.

Townsend (GEORGE HERBERT), b. in England about 1835; received a good education; became a prominent London journalist in the interest of the Conservative party; compiled several volumes of anecdotes and essays; edited Fielding's Tom Jones and Smollett's Roderick Random ; published an epitome of Russell's Modern Europe and Summary of Persian History, The Handbook of the Year 1868, and The Manual of Dates, a Dictionary of Reference (1862; 3d ed. 1870), and supervised the 7th ed. of Men of the Time (1868). Disappointed in his hopes of political advancement by the downfall of the Disraeli ministry in Dec., 1868, he committed suicide at Kensington Feb. 23, 1869. He left ready for the press The Every-Day Book of Modern Literature, a Series of Short Readings from the Best Authors, which was published in 1870.

Townsend (JOHN K.), b. in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1809; devoted himself to natural history; made extensive journeys in the Western States and across the Rocky Mountains (1833-37) in company with Thomas Nuttall; visited the Sandwich Islands and South America, and was a contributor to the Journal of the Philadelphia Academy of