in causing the expulsion of Jews and Moors from Spain, and burned at the stake during sixteen years from 9000 to 10,000 persons. (See INQUISITION.) In his later years his authority was curtailed by the appointment of four colleagues by express orders of Pope Alexander VI. D. at Avila Sept. 16, 1498.

Torrear'sa (VINCENZO), MARQUIS, b. at Trapani July 17, 1808; was inspector-general of the customs when the revolution of 1848 broke out; professing liberal ideas, was chosen president by the committee of finance; was also made president of the Sicilian Parliament, and publicly announced the fall of the Bourbons on Apr. 13; on July 10 proclaimed the duke of Genoa king of Sicily; Aug., 1848, accepted the presidency of the ministry, holding the portfolio of foreign affairs. The Bourbons being re-established, he emigrated to Nice, and put himself in communication with Cavour; in 1860 joined Garibaldi, who had entered Palermo; proposed a Sicilian constituent assembly, which was convoked in October, and took a seat in it himself as deputy; was commissioned to bear to King Victor Emmanuel the vote of Sicily for union with the kingdom of Italy; has since been vicar-president of the Italian Parliament, ambassador extraordinary from the kingdom of Italy to Sweden and Denmark, prefect of Florence, and president of the senate of the kingdom.

Tor're del Gre'co, town of Italy, province of Naples, on the eastern coast of the Bay of Naples, at the foot of Vesuvius, whose eruptions have destroyed it several times. It was always rebuilt, however, and it is very celebrated for its wine and fruits; tunny, anchovy, sardine, and coral fishing are carried on with energy by the inhabitants. P. 5477; before the eruption in 1861, about 15,000.

Tor're, del'la (GIOVANNI BATTISTA Crescenzi), MarQUIs, b. at Rome in 1595; studied painting and architecture, and was made superintendent of public works by Pope Paul V. In 1617 he accompanied Cardinal Zapata to Madrid, where he gained the favor of Philip III. by his flower-pictures, and was entrusted with the ornamentation of the burial pantheon of the Escurial, one of the most magnificent monuments of Europe. Philip IV. ennobled him and made him a marquis, Della Torre, and his house was the rendezvous for all artists and literary people in Madrid. D. in 1660, or, according to some accounts, in

1665.

Torre, della (GIOVANNI MARIA), b. in Rome in 1713; was professor of natural philosophy at the Academy of Naples, and subsequently director of the royal library, museum, and printing-house. D. in Naples in 1782. He was the first who undertook to descend into the crater of Vesavius, and wrote, besides his Elementa Physices (1767), Storia e Fenomeni del Vesuvio (1755).

Tor're dell' Annunzia'ta, town of Italy, province of Naples, at the foot of Vesuvius, noted for its thermal springs and its manufactures of arms. P. 15,500.

Tor're de Moncor'vo, town of Portugal, province of Tras os Montes, picturesquely situated on the southern slope of the Roboredo Mountain, between the Sapor and Douro, is surrounded with walls and defended by an old castle. It is supposed to be the ancient Forum Narbasorum. It has some silk manufactures, and the silkworm is extensively reared in the vicinity. P. about 2000.

Tor're di Ma're, village of Naples, at the mouth of the Basento in the Gulf of Taranto, is famous for the ruins of the ancient Megapontum which are found in its vicinity. Megapontum was at one time one of the wealthiest and most celebrated cities of Magna Græcia, the homestead of Pythagoras, but its prosperity received a fearful blow when, after the fatal battle of the Metaurus (207 B. c.), Hannibal was compelled to give up this part of Italy, and carried with him all the citizens of Megapontum in order to defend them from the vengeance of the Romans. In the time of Cicero the city still existed, but in a state of rapid decay.

Tor're Don Jime'no, town of Spain, province of Jaen, near the Guadalquivir, in a fertile and well-cultivated plain, producing excellent wines, olives, and wheat. P. 6777.

Tor're Maggio're, town of Southern Italy, province of Foggia, about 4 miles from San Severo. The old ducal palace is a fine building. The agricultural products of the district are abundant-grain, wine, oil, and fruits-and the pasturage is excellent. The town, however, is subject to violent earthquakes, having been almost totally destroyed in 1627, and again in 1688. P. 9260.

Torremuz'za, de (GABRIEL). PRINCE, b. at Palermo in 1727; devoted himself to the study of Sicilian antiquities, and published Sicilia Populorum, Urbium, Regum et Tyrannorum Numismata (1767), Siciliæ et objacentium Insularum veterum Inscriptionum nova Collectio (1769), and Siciliæ veteres Nummi (1781). D. in 1792.

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Tor'rens (ROBERT), F. R. S., b. in Ireland about 1780; entered the naval service 1797 as lieutenant of marines; rose to be colonel 1837; subsequently became major-general in India; was for some years a member of Parliament, where he was a vigorous supporter of the Reform bill, and acquired great note as a political economist; received from 1852 a pension of £200 from the civil list. D. May 27, 1864. Among his numerous treatises were an Essay on Money and Paper Currency (1812), Essay on the External Corn Trade (1815), Essay on the Production of Wealth (1821), The Budget, a Series of Letters on Financial, Commercial, and Colonial Policy (1841-43), Tracts on Finance and Trade (1852), and several single Letters on similar subjects addressed to prominent statesmen.-His son, SIR ROBERT RICHARD, b. in 1814, educated at Trinity College, Dublin, became collector of customs in South Australia 1841, treasurer 1852, subsequently chief secretary and registrar-general; returned to Great Britain about 1865; sat in Parliament for Cambridge 1868-74, and was knighted 1872. Author of works on Australian subjects.

Torrens (WILLIAM TORRENS McCullagh), b. at Greenfield, county Dublin, Ireland, in Oct., 1813; graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, 1834; was called to the Irish bar 1836; became commissioner of the poor law

inquiry in Ireland 1835; private secretary to Lord Taun

ton 1836; sat in Parliament for Dundalk as an advanced Liberal 1848-52; was an unsuccessful candidate for Yarmouth 1852; was elected from that borough Mar., 1857, but was unseated on petition; has represented Finsbury since July, 1865; was prominent during the American civil war as an advocate of the Union cause; aided Mr. Disraeli in 1867 to carry his household suffrage bill, to which he procured the addition of the lodger franchise; introduced in 1868 the artisans' dwellings bill, which was carried after protracted debates; obtained in 1869 an important reform in the management of pauper children by the poorlaw guardians in London, and secured in 1870 the adoption of the extradition act, and in the same year proposed the creation of the London school board. He is a member of Lincoln's Inn, and a practitioner at the common-law bar; assumed in 1863 the maternal name of Torrens in addition to the paternal one of McCullagh; is author of The Use and Study of History (Dublin, 1841), The Industrial History of Free Nations (2 vols., 1846), Memoirs of Richard Lalor Sheil, with Anecdotes of Contemporaries (2 vols., 1855), Life and Times of Sir James Graham, Bart. (2 vols., 1863), The Lancashire Lesson (1864), and Our Empire in Asia: how we came by it (1872).

devoted himself after his seventeenth year to poetry and Tor'res-Caïce'do (I. M.), b. at Bogota Mar. 30, 1830; literature; was editor of El Progresso, and subsequently of El Dia, which brought him into a severe conflict with the government; was elected a member of the legislative assembly, and filled afterward various diplomatic positions at Paris, London, the Hague, and Washington, but retired in 1864, in order to devote himself exclusively to literature. He has published in Paris Religion, Patrie et Amour, a collection of poems, and Essais biographiques sur les principaux Publicistes, Poëtes et Littérateurs latino-américains (2 vols., 1863).

Torres Strait, the name of the channel which separates New Guinea or Papua from Australia. It is 80 miles broad, but covered with islands and full of shoals and reefs, which make its navigation difficult. It was discovered by Torres in 1606.

Tor'res Ve'dras, The Lines of, consisted, when completed, of 152 distinct works, arranged in two lines, 25 miles N. of Lisbon, and extended from the Tagus to the sea. They were provided with an armament of 534 pieces of ordnance, and their garrisons were calculated at 34,125 men. Of the two principal lines, the advanced was 29 and the rear 25 miles in length, following the principal features of defence, the distance in a direct line between their flanks being 22 and 25 miles respectively. These works were generally small enclosed redoubts, armed with from two to six pieces of ordnance, and requiring infantry garrisons of from 100 to 300 men. The largest," the great work at Monte Agraça," had a perimeter of 2435 feet, an armament of 25 guns, and required an infantry garrison calculated at 1590 men. Their artillery consisted of 6, 9, and 12-pounder guns and 54-inch howitzers, mostly on rude truck-carriages. The allied army fell back and entered their line Oct., 1810, holding the invading forces at bay till Mar., 1811, when they retired discomfited. The genius and foresight of Wellington in providing this strong position was thus fully vindicated. (See Jones's Sieges in Spain.) (For a comparison of these lines with others, and with the defences of Washington, see Prof. Papers Corps of Engineers U. S. A., No. 20.) J. G. BARNARD.

Torrey (CHARLES TURNER), b. at Scituate, Mass., in 1813; graduated at Yale College 1833; studied theology with Rev. Dr. Jacob Ide of Medway, whose daughter he married; was successively pastor of Congregational churches at Princeton and at Salem, Mass., but relinquished his professional position to devote himself to antislavery labors in Maryland, where he was tried and sentenced to imprisonment for aiding slaves to escape, and died of consumption in the State prison at Baltimore May 9, 1846. His remains were buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery, near Boston. Author of a Memoir of William R. Saxton (1838) and Home, or the Pilgrim's Faith Reviewed (1845), the latter being a volume of sketches of home-life in Massachusetts possessing considerable merit, written while in prison. His biography was published under the title Memoirs of the Martyr Torrey (1847).

Torrey (CHARLES WARREN), M. D. See APPENDIX. Torrey (JOHN), M. D., LL.D., b. in New York City in 1798; graduated in medicine in College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, 1818; was professor of chemistry, geology, and mineralogy in the Military Academy, West Point, 1824-27, of chemistry and botany in the College of Physicians and Surgeons 1827-55, and of chemistry and natural history in the College of New Jersey 1830-54; was chief assayer of the U. S. 1853-73; was one of the founders of the New York Lyceum of Natural History, of which he was for many years president, and at the request of which he prepared, as early as 1817, while still a medical student, a Catalogue of Plants growing spontaneously within Thirty Miles of the City of New York (Albany, 1819); published vol. i. of a Flora of the Northern and Middle States (New York, 1824) and a Compendium of the same (1826), both in accordance with the Linnæan system; suspended this task in consequence of the general adoption of the natural system of Jussieu in preference to that of Linnæus; was appointed botanist of the geological survey of New York 1836; published a monograph on the Cyperacer of North America (1836); began in 1838, in connection with his former pupil, Dr. Asa Gray, the publication in numbers of a Flora of North America in accordance with the natural system of classification, which had reached the close of the great natural order Composite when in 1843 the vast accumulation of materials compelled its suspension; published the Flora of the State of New York (2 vols., 1843-44), forming vols. vi. and vii. of the Natural History of that State; edited Dr. L. D. de Schweinitz's Monograph of the North American Species of the Genus Carex (New York, 1825) and Dr. John Lindley's Introduction to the Natural System of Botany (New York, 1831), to which he added an Appendie; was from 1822 to 1858 the chief botanical editor of the numerous reports of U. S. surveying and exploring expeditions; was a frequent contributor to the Annals of the New York Lyceum, to the New York Medical Repository, Silliman's Journal, the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, the Transactions of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and other learned societies; was a distinguished chemist, and frequently consulted by the treasury department at Washington on matters relating to coinage and currency; was many years a trustee of Columbia College, to which institution he presented in 1860 his valuable herbarium and botanical library, the fruit of forty years of research, and in which he was largely influential in extending the curriculum and organizing a post-graduate course; was a member and frequently an officer of the leading scientific associations of the U. S., and an honorary member of several similar bodies in Europe. D. in New York City Mar. 10, 1873. A brief Memoir by his pupil and associate, Prof. Asa Gray, may be found in the annual discourse of the latter delivered in 1874, as pres. of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. PORTER C. BLISS.

Torrey (JOSEPH), D. D., b. at Rowley, Mass., Feb. 2, 1797; graduated at Dartmouth College 1816, and at Andover 1819; was pastor of a Congregational church at Royalton, Vt., 1819-27, professor of Greek and Latin in the University of Vermont 1827-42, professor of intellectual and moral philosophy 1842-67, and president of the University 1863-65. D. at Burlington Nov. 26, 1867. Author of a posthumous volume of lectures, A Theory of Art (1875); editor of the Remains (1843) of Pres. James Marsh, and of the Select Sermons (1861) of Pres. Worthington Smith, to both of which he prefixed carefully-prepared Memoirs; and translator of Neander's General History of the Christian Religion and Church (Boston, 5 vols., 1854), accompanied by elaborate and scholarly notes, which may be considered as the great literary work of his life.

Torrey (JOSEPH W.). Sec APPENDIX.

Torrey (WILLIAM), b. at Combe St. Nicholas, Somersetshire, England, about 1590, was descended from an eminent family of that county; received a good classical education, and emigrated to Massachusetts with his brother

James about 1632, the two being ancestors of all of the name in the U. S. James settled at Scituate, and William at Weymouth, where he became a magistrate and captain of the train-band of the colony (the highest military rank at that time); was many years representative for Weymouth in the general court, of which, as he wrote a good hand, he was usually clerk or secretary, and was a member of its committees whenever they had to do with education or literature, as in the case of that appointed to examine Eliot's Indian Bible. D. at Weymouth about 1675. He wrote a work on the millennium entitled A Discourse concerning Futurities, etc., first printed by Rev. Dr. Prince in 1757, with a biographical notice.-His son SAMUEL, b. in England in 1632; graduated at Harvard 1652; became an eminent minister at Weymouth, preached the "election sermon" three times, and twice declined the presidency of Harvard College. D. at Weymouth in 1707.

Torrey'a [named in honor of Dr. John Torrey, the illustrious botanist], an interesting genus of trees of the order Coniferæ, allied to the yews, but easily distinguished by the naked drupe and the ruminated albumen of the seeds. T. Californica is a fine ornamental species; T. taxifolia of Florida has a durable, strong-scented, heavy, and close-grained wood and horizontal whorled branches. It sometimes attains a height of fifty feet. Eastern Asia has several species. T. myristica has a useful timber. The seeds of T. nucifera afford an oil used in cooking food. The astringent nuts of some species are used by the Japanese courtiers to repress the renal secretion during the long audiences of their monarch. When burnt, the leaves and wood of the Torreyas give off a powerful and disagreeable smell. Before the formation of this genus, several unsuccessful attempts were made thus to honor Dr. Torrey by naming a genus after him. Rafinesque applied the name Torreya to a group of sedges, now referred to Cyperus, and Sprengel applied it to a proposed genus of verbenaceous plants.

Torricelli (EVANGELISTA), b. at Faenza Oct. 15, 1608; studied mathematics and physics in Rome under Castelli, and in Florence under Galileo, whom he succeeded in 1642 as professor at the Academy. D. at Florence Oct. 25, 1647. In 1644 he published his Opera Geometrica. His most remarkable discovery is that of the BAROMETER (which see).

Torrijos (José MARIA), b. at Madrid, Spain, May 20, 1791; was in youth a page at the court of Charles IV.; served with credit in the war of independence, gaining the rank of colonel on the field of battle; distinguished himself as captain-general of Valencia by his zeal for the constitution of 1812, which occasioned his dismissal from the army by Ferdinand VII., and his imprisonment 1817-20; was appointed by the Cortes in 1820 field-marshal and commander-in-chief of Navarre and the Basque provinces; held out to the last against the French intervention of 1823. but was finally forced to capitulate at Cartagena; lived several years in exile at London, where he was considered the head of the numerous Spanish refugees; obtained, through the influence of John Sterling in 1830, sufficient funds to equip an expedition for the liberation of Spain from the despotism of Ferdinand VII., but being unsuecessful on landing, had to take refuge at Gibraltar, whence in 1831 he made another expedition to the S. of Spain; was captured with 53 companions, tried by court-martial, and shot at Malaga Dec. 11, 1831.

Tor'rington, Litchfield co., Conn. (see map of Connecticut, ref. 4-C, for location of county), on Naugatuck R. R. and River. P. of tp. in 1870, 2893; in 1880, 3327.

Torshok', town of Russia, government of Tver, on the Tertza, has extensive manufactures of vinegar, earthenware, tiles, candles, leather, shoes, and gloves which are embroidered with gold and silver and largely exported. The trade in these articles and in grain and eggs is very lively. P. 12,910.

Tor'sion [Lat. torqueo, torsum, to "twist"], in surgery, the twisting of the cut end of an artery in a wound or after a surgical operation, for the purpose of restraining hæmorrhage. This method has had enthusiastic advocates, but is now seldom employed except in special cases.

Torsion Balance, for measuring delicate electrical or other attractions and repulsions, was invented by Coulomb. The attraction or repulsion is measured by the resistance offered to it by the twist of a filament of spun glass or other fibre. (See also RADIOMETER.)

Torsk, or Dorse [Dan. torsk]. (1) The Morrhua callarias, or Baltic cod, a valuable food-fish of the North European seas. (2) TORSK or TUSK, the Brosmius vulgaris, a valuable European food-fish, considered by some as the same as the cusk (B. flavescens) of our American Atlantic waters. All the above are of the cod-family, and are eaten fresh, or more generally are salted and dried. (3) Our Pacific

coasts have another torsk, Brosmophycis marginatus. (See DORSE.)

Tor'stenson (LENNART), b. at Torstena, West Gothland, Sweden, Aug. 17, 1603; was educated as a page at the court of Gustavus Adolphus, whom he accompanied in 1630 to Germany; distinguished himself greatly as commander of the artillery in the battle on the Lech, Apr. 5, 1632: was taken prisoner before Nuremberg Aug. 24, 1632, and kept for six months in a damp, subterranean dungeon in Ingolstadt by Maximilian of Bavaria; was appointed commander-in-chief of the Swedish army in Germany in 1641 (see THIRTY YEARS' WAR), but was compelled by the gout to resign his command in 1646; returned to Sweden; was made count of Ortala by Queen Christina and governor-general of the province of West Gothland. D. in Stockholm Apr. 7, 1657. (See De Peyster's Torstenson, New York, 1886.)

Tort [Fr. tort, "wrong" Lat. torquere, tortus, to "twist," "twisted"], in law, is a wrongful act, default, or omission, not consisting in a mere breach of contract, whereby a civil injury is done to another, and a remedial right of compensation therefor accrues to him-the violation of a civil duty owing to another, and not arising solely from contract. The common law divides all civil wrongs or delicts for which a compensatory action lies into torts and breaches of contract. Although the distinction is in the main a plain one and easy to be traced, yet at certain points the two classes become intermingled, and it is very difficult to determine with accuracy in which of them a given wrongful act should be placed. Among the essential differences are the following: The duty which is violated, and the breach of which constitutes a tort, may, and generally does, spring from some other relation between the parties than that of contract. As, for example, when a man is assaulted or defamed or his land is trespassed upon, bis right to his own person, reputation, or property free from molestation by others, and the corresponding duty resting upon all mankind not to molest him in his enjoyment, are not based upon any contract, express or implied, between the parties. This is in general the characteristic feature of most torts, yet it is not universal, for, as will be seen hereafter, a tortious act may be a breach of contract, or may be inseparably connected with contract. Another difference is that persons under disabilities to bind themselves by contract, as infants, married women, and even the insane, may be liable for torts which they have committed. Again, if a tort is done to the person or reputation-that is, not directly to property-and either the wrongdoer or the injured party dies, all right of action ceases; while both the right and the liability for the breach of all contracts (with a very few special exceptions) survive on the death of either contracting party. In respect to the form of the remedy, where a tort is committed by several persons jointly, a suit or suits may be maintained against all, some, each, or any of the wrongdoers; but in the case of a joint contract all the promissors or obligors must, as the general rule, be united in the action and sued together. On the other hand, torts may be closely connected with breaches of contract. The act by which a contract is broken may be in every sense of the term tortions. This dual character occurs especially where the delict or wrong consists in negligence or want of skill, but is not confined to such cases. To illustrate: where passengers are injured on railways or other conveyances, where goods are lost or damaged by common carriers, where persons hired to perform special services fail through carelessness or lack of skill, where the property of guests left in the custody of innkeepers is not forthcoming, and in many other similar relations, the defaulting party has at once violated his contract with his employer and has committed a tort. In all these instances the one who has suffered the loss or wrong has an election to regard the delict as merely a violation of contract, or to treat it as a breach of duty and sue for the tort. Fraud also, which is certainly a species of tort, is generally and almost necessarily connected in some manner with contract. Here also an election often exists, either to sue on the contract, considering the deceit as incidental, or to abandon the contract and base the right of action wholly on the fraud as an independent and separate wrong.

When torts are considered in their essential nature, they may be arranged into different classes according to their characteristic elements. In one class the delict consists in a positive act of wrong, the doing what ought not to be done, the breach of a duty to forbear. In another class it consists in a wrongful omission or default, such as negli gence or want of skill, the doing something in an improper manner. In many cases the very essence of the tort and of the consequent liability lies in the wrongful intent or malice with which the act is done. In others the injurious act or omission alone constitutes the tort and the liability,

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without any reference to the intent which accompanied it. Certain torts are entirely of a statutory origin; as, for example, the wrongful killing a person, and the consequent action for damages which is now given to the representatives of the deceased by the legislation of England and of the American States. Finally, there is an intimate connection between torts and crimes. The wrongful intent or malice which is the constituent of certain species plainly assimilates them to criminal delicts, and many wrongs to person, character, or property may be punished as crimes, and at the same time give a right of action to recover damages. The common-law doctrine, that if the tortious act amounts to a felony, the civil right of action is swallowed up in the crime and the public punishment, has been generally rejected in the U. S. It is impossible in this article to enumerate all the species and instances of torts; and, in fact, such an enumeration can never be made complete, since new varieties of wrong are constantly invented, and the maxim ubi jus ibi remedium finds here its most direct and appropriate application. A general classification, however, may be made of―(1) those done to persons, in all their possible relations, private, domestic, professional, and official; (2) those against character and reputation; and (3) those done to property, real and personal. When it is considered that in all these three classes the injury may be direct or consequential, intentional or accidental, by positive acts or by omissions, it is plain that the variety of possible torts is practically unlimited. JOHN NORTON POMEROY.

Tor'ti (GIOVANNI), b. at Milan 1774; d. at Genoa 1851. A volume of his poems was published at Genoa. In reference no doubt to his elegant epistle in verse on I Sepolcri of Ugo Foscolo, Manzoni wrote in his Promessi Sposi these somewhat exaggerated words: "Pochi valenti come i versi del Torti."

Tor'toise-Plant, also called ELEPHANT'S FOor (which

see).

Tortoises [Lat. tortus, alluding to its crooked feet], an order of reptiles, by some called Testudinata and by others Chelonia, peculiar, among all animals, in the boxlike case, formed chiefly by an outgrowth of the ribs, into which they can wholly or in part withdraw their head and members. The general form is universally familiar. The skull has all its bones forming a continuous solid framework (excepting only the lower jaw and the hyoidean arch), and the quadrate bone is connected by suture with the periotic region; the lower jaw has its rami entirely and largely connected at the symphysis; the jaws are destitute of true teeth, and are generally encased in corneous sheaths simulating the bill of a bird, but sometimes, (in Trionychida) have fleshy lips; the dorsal vertebræ are immovably connected together, and the ribs are more or less expanded, sometimes united by suture, sometimes disconnected, and, together with certain bones developed in the integument of the embryo, constitute the framework of the upper shell, which is called the carapace; opposed to the carapace, and more or less closing it from beneath, is a flattish covering of the abdomen, which is composed of bones also developed in the integument, and constituting the so-called plastron; both carapace and plastron are mostly covered with horny shields arranged in regular order (on the carapace five in a median row, eight-four in each-in the lateral rows, and generally 23 to 25 in a marginal series), but sometimes are invested in smooth thick skin; the feet are always well developed, and fitted for walking or swimming: their bones are developed in a normal manner; the heart is trilocular; the copulatory organ is simple. Such are the most prominent characters in which the tortoises contrast or compare with the other orders of reptiles. They stand alone in the development of the ribs and dermal bones into a shell, and are indeed quite isolated in this respect, no other reptiles, so far as known, living or extinct, to any considerable extent exhibiting an intermediate condition between this complete development of a carapace and the normal development of ribs. The order is well represented in the present epoch, and members thereof are found in all continental areas and almost all the older islands; but in this respect there are some notable contrasts. Thus, while there are numerous species in North America, there are very few in Europe, and none (save occasional marine stragglers) in Great Britain. In time they are claimed to have survived from the closing period of the Silurian age to our own, but the evidence as to such antiquity is unsatisfactory and based on footprints of equivocal character. They, however, indisputably existed during the Jurassic and succeeding epochs. The types flourishing in ancient days in Europe and North America were to a large extent not allied to the predominant forms now existing in those countries, but were more related to certain marine forms (the Sphargidide) and to fresh-water

types of an inferior grade of structure now limited to the southern hemisphere, and especially South America and Australia. The members of the order have been variously distributed according to the views of systematists respecting the value of the several chief modifications of structure. Fitzinger, who seems first to have grouped the families in higher categories under the order in 1843, gave primary importance to the development of the members, and arranged (1) under the "order Tylopoda" the club-footed or true land-tortoises; (2) under an order, Steganopodes, all the web-footed fresh-water tortoises; and (3) under a sub-order, Oiacopoda, the finned marine tortoises. J. E. Gray in 1870 elevated the families and sub-families of Duméril and Bibron severally to sub-ordinal rank under the names Tylopoda (= Chersites D. and B.), Steganopodes (= Elodites cryptodères D. and B.), Pleuroderes (= Elodites pleurodères D. and B.), Trionychoidea (Potamites D. and B.), and Oiacopodes (= Thalassites D. and B.). Agassiz differentiated the families into two sub-orders-(1) the Amydæ, or footed tortoises, and (2) the Chelonii, or finned tortoises. Cope, entirely disregarding the modifications of the limbs for primary purposes, distributed the families among three sub-orders viz. (1) Athecæ, distinguished by the slight degree of ossification of the shell, including the Sphargidida and extinct Protastegido: (2) Cryptodira, including all the tortoises which draw in their neck in a curve along the longitudinal axis of the body, and including the common sea-turtles, the Trionychidae, the typical Cryptodères of Duméril and Bibron and Gray, and the true land-tortoises; and (3) Pleurodira, including the tortoises which draw in their neck sideways, all of which are web-footed fresh-water forms, and correspond with the Pleurodères of other authors. Finally, Huxley has divided the order into (1) Testudinea (Chersites and Tylopoda), (2) Emydea (= Elodites), (3) Trionychoidea (= Potamites), and (4) Euereta (Thalassites), thus, like Duméril and Bibron, assigning primary importance to the modifications of the feet and the characters co-ordinated with them. The families admitted by Cope are the following: under Athecæ, Sphargidida and Protastegida; under Cryptodira, Cheloniidæ, Propleurida, Trionychida, Emydida, Chelydridæ, Cinosternidæ, Testudinidæ, Pleurosternida, and Adocide; and under Pleurodira, Podocnemidæ, Chelydidæ, Hydraspididæ, Pelomedusidæ, and Sternothærida: those indicated by italic letters are extinct. (More detailed information is given under several of the family names, and under CHELONIA.) THEODORE GILL.

Tortoise-shell, the scales which form together the carapace of Caretla imbricata, a large turtle found in the Indian and Pacific oceans and in the Red and Arafoora seas, and occasionally taken in the Atlantic. The species is known as the hawk's-bill turtle. Its flesh is unwholesome as food. Tortoise-shell is remarkable for its plastic quality, which enables the artificer to give it almost any desired shape while under the influence of heat. Pieces of the shell may even be welded together, and the filings and chips are moulded and shaped as desired when heated to the proper temperature. Tortoise-shell is chiefly used for making combs, inlaying boxes and toilet-articles, etc. Of late it is successfully imitated by various artificial compounds of much less cost. It is customary in some regions to apply heat to the back of the living tortoise, and then remove the plates, but the crop of shell which replaces the first is thin and of inferior quality.

Torto'na [Lat. Dertona], town of Italy, province of Alessan Iria, about 12 miles E. of the city of Alessandria, on a hill nearly 900 feet above the sea. Tortona was once a strongly-fortified city, but its last defences were destroyed, by order of Napoleon, after the battle of Marengo. Some of the public buildings are worthy of notice. The old cathedral, originally a Jewish synagogue, was converted into a church during the reign of Constantine, but it was destroyed by an accidental explosion of gunpowder in 1609, which at the same time demolished a large part of the town. In the new cathedral (1575) there are some valuable pictures, among them a beautiful San Sebastian; here may also be seen a grand old sarcophagus with Greek and Latin inscriptions. The library of Tortona is very rich in early ecclesiastical works. The theatre is one of the finest in Piedmont. The principal industries are silk-reeling and the manufacture of coarse cotton fabrics, both these occupations being chiefly carried on in private houses. Tortona was an important town under the Romans. Under the Lombards the Benedictines became very wealthy and powerful here, and extended their influence widely and beneficially over the neighboring country. Later, Tortona constituted itself into an independent republic, and was conspicuous during the whole mediæval period, even after the loss of popular liberty. Remains of the great aqueduct, the

cloaca, baths, and other Roman constructions are still to be seen. In the fourteenth century a rich harvest of antique statuary, vases, urns, mosaic floors, coins, etc., was discovered, and similar objects are frequently found even now. P. 13,504.

Torto'rici, town of Sicily, province of Messina, about 25 miles from Patti. The adjacent country is very productive, and near the town are the ruins of a grand old Roman bridge. P. 7835.

Torto'sa, an old but well-built and fortified town of Spain, province of Tarragona, on the Ebro, in a fertile and well-cultivated district, has manufactures of cotton and linen goods, glass, soap, and pottery. P. 24,057. Tortricidæ. See LEAF-ROLLERS.

Tortric'ida [from Tortrix, "tartar," the name of the chief genus], a family of serpents of the sub-order Angiostomata. They are worm-like in appearance; have no constriction separating the head and trunk; the head is shielded above; the maxillary bones have alveolar ridges and teeth; the pupils of the eyes are round; the body is covered with smooth scales; the tail is short and conic, and there are rudiments of posterior extremities. The skull has the mastoid entering into the cranial walls; a coronoid bone is present; cetopterygoids and prefrontals are developed; and the maxillary is horizontal and in contact with the prefrontal. (Cope.) The family has few species, and is mostly confined, as thus restricted, to South America, Southern Asia, and Australia. The typical species, Tortrix seytale, is sometimes known as the "coral snake," but is not to be confounded with the Elapida, which are also frequently designated by the same name; it is a South American species. The Oriental species belong to the genus Cylindrophis, and are said to be viviparous. (See Günther, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. i. p. 428, 1868.) THEODORE GILL.

Törts'var, or Törzburg, town of Austria, in Transylvania, on the Törz, has a strong citadel. P. 8930. Tortugas. See DRY TORTUGAS.

Tor'ture [Lat. torquere, to "twist," to "torment"], the production of severe bodily pain for the purpose of extracting an avowal of guilt, the revelation of accomplices, or evidence in general. It was quite common among the Greeks, and in certain cases it even seems to have formed a standing feature of their legal proceedings. But it was inflicted only on slaves; a free Greek citizen could not be tortured. From Greece it was introduced to Rome, where it also became common, though at times it was loudly denounced by their jurists and orators as barbarous of itself and doubtful in its results. With the Romans, however, it found in course of time a wider application. During the emperors, and in cases of crimen læsæ majestatis also, free citizens-yea, even members of the first families were tortured, and thus it became a part of the code of Justinian. Hence it was adopted during the Middle Ages by all European states in which the Roman law was made the basis of legislation, and in many countriesfor instance, in Germany-it flourished rankly. In the town-house of Ratisbon can be seen a complete set of the various instruments of torture, and the criminal code of Maria Theresa, promulgated in 1769, was accompanied by 45 large plates of engravings representing the various methods of proceeding. It was not entirely abolished in Germany until the beginning of this century. In England it was known in the fourteenth century. In 1310, Edward II. consented, at the instance of Pope Clement V., to subject the Templars to torture. During the reign of Henry VI. the rack was introduced as an engine of state by the duke of Exeter, and in the reign of Henry VIII. torture became quite common. It was, however, never recognized by the common law except in the one case of peine fort et dure; it was considered a prerogative of the Crown, and during the Tudors the privy council assumed the right of issuing torture-warrants to the lieutenant of the Tower and other officers for the purpose of extorting discoveries of criminal offences. The last case occurred in 1640. Its worst application it found in the hands of the Inquisition In the thirteenth century the Roman law concerning crimer læsse majestatis began to be applied to heresy as a crimen Læse majestatis diving, and in 1282, Pope Innocent IV. called on the secular powers to put to the torture persons accused of heresy in order to extract confessions against themselves and others. When, finally, the Inquisition was broken up, its dungeons and archives revealed horrors truly appalling. The rack, on which men were stretched till their joints were loosened, the Spanish boot, which compressed the muscles of the leg to a jelly, the thumbscrew, etc., were the common instruments of torture, but the Inquisition possessed the most ingenious tools of tormenting, besides using water, fire, melted metals, mutila

tion, etc. In the eighteenth century Thomasius, Voltaire, Beccaria, and others wrote with some effect against the application of torture, and finally the French revolution swept it entirely out of existence.

Torula Cerevisiæ, or Yeast-Plant. See FERMENTATION, by PROF. C. F. CHANDLER, PH. D., M. D., LL.D. To'ry [a word of Irish origin, probably signifying a "robber"], a name first applied to the Roman Catholic outlaws who lived in the bogs of Ireland during the reign of Charles II.; afterward extended (1679) to all those, whether English, Scotch, or Irish, who were opposed to the bill excluding the duke of York from the succession. Finally, the name came to designate the conservative party in British politics. In the Revolutionary war of the U. S. the loyalists were called Tories.

Toscanelli (PAOLO DEL Pozzo), b. at Florence, Italy, in 1397; became one of the keepers of the Florentine library 1427; erected, about 1468, the famous gnomon on the Duomo of Florence; was learned in the scientific and geographical literature of the Greek and Latin classics, and by his letters to Columbus was instrumental in confirming the latter in his views of the figure of the earth and the practicability of a voyage westward to Cathay. D. at Florence May 15,

1482.

Total Abstinence. See TEMPERANCE, by H. I. Bow

DITCH.

Tota'na, town of Spain, province of Murcia, at an elevation of 4870 feet. Ice is an important item of its trade, and considerable quantities are exported to all the larger towns of Spain. P. 9648.

To'tem [Algonkin, totêm], a rude figure of some object, generally of an animal, used by the North American Indians as the symbol of a tribe, or sometimes of a particular band, to which they belong. The same custom prevails in Northern Asia, Australia, Oceanica, etc., as formerly in Europe.

Tot'ila, chosen king by the Ostrogoths in 510 after the defeat and capture of Vitiges at Ravenna by Belisarius; besieged and conquered Rome in 546, and extended and consolidated the Ostrogothic empire in Italy after the recall of Belisarius in 549, but was defeated and mortally wounded in the battle at Taginæ by Narses in 552.

Totonicapan, town of Guatemala, Central America, is really only an Indian village, but the inhabitants number about 10,000, and the soil is remarkably well cultivated and very productive, though not very fertile. Some manufactures of hardware, wooden articles, and woollen stuffs are also carried on.

Tot'ten (JAMES), b. in Pennsylvania in 1816; graduated at West Point 1841; served in the Florida and Mexican wars as an officer of artillery; was in command of the arsenal at Little Rock, Ark., when it was seized by the secessionists; served as chief of artillery in Missouri under Gens. Lyon and Fremont; commanded an artillery division under Gen. Halleck; became successively inspector-general of the departments of the Missouri and of the Atlantic, and was brevetted major-general of volunteers 1865. D. at Sedalia, Mo., Sept. 11, 1871.

Totten (JOSEPH GILBERT), b. at New Haven, Conn., Aug. 23, 1788: was graduated from the U. S. Military Academy July, 1805, when commissioned second lieutenant in the corps of engineers. In 1805 he accompanied his uncle. Jared Mansfield, then surveyor-general of Ohio, to the West as an assistant on this the first systematic survey of any of the new States of the Union, and Mar. 31, 1806, resigned from the army. His tastes, however, led him back to the army, and Feb. 23, 1808, he was reappointed a second lieutenant of engineers, commencing his career as a military engineer under Jonathan Williams, the first chief of the corps, and was engaged on the construction of Castle Williams and Fort Clinton. New York harbor, 1808-12. At the commencement of the war with Great Britain, Totten (eaptain in his corps, July 31, 1812) was assigned to duty as chief engineer of the army under Gen. Van Rensselaer in the campaign of 1812, on the Niagara frontier, and in that capacity took a conspicuous part in the battle of Queenstown. He was subsequently chief engineer of the army under the command of Gen. Dearborn, in the campaign of 1913, and of the army under Gens. Izard and Macomb, in the campaign of 1814 on Lake Champlain. For meritorious services" he was brevetted major June, 113, and lieutenant-colonel Sept. 11, 1814, for gallant conduct at the battle of Plattsburg. In Nov., 1816, a board of engineers was constituted, with Totten as a member, with instructions to make examinations of the sea-coast, and to prepare plans for defensive works. In 1817, Totten was relieved, and placed in charge of the fortifications at Rouse's Point, N. Y.; but was again made a member of

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the board in 1819, which by the resignations of Gen. Swift and Col. McRee, came to consist of himself and Gen. Bernard only, and the labor of working out the fundamental principles of the system, and of elaborating the projects of defence for our great seaports, thus devolved mainly on these two officers. A series of reports drawn up by this board, mostly from the pen of Totten, exhibit in a masterly manner the principles of sea-coast and harbor defence, and their application to our own country. As soon as the original board of engineers had sufficiently matured the general system of defence, and completed plans for the works first required, its members applied themselves to the duty of construction. In 1825, Totten (a major since 1818, and brevet colonel 1824) took charge of the construction of Fort Adams, Newport harbor, and continued until Dec.,

1838. This work, the second in magnitude of the fortifications of the U. S., is one of the best monuments of his genius as a military engineer. Advanced to the grade of lieutenant-colonel in 1828, he conducted (1830-31) a series of experiments on the expansion and contraction of building-stone by natural changes of temperature, and the effect of these variations on cements employed to secure the joints of stone copings; also to ascertain the relative stiffness and strength of various kinds of timber-experiments attended with important practical results. His work on Hydraulic and Common Mortars was published in 1838, containing, besides original experiments extending over the period from 1825 to 1838, translations of essays by the best French writers on the subject. Col. Totten was appointed colonel of the corps of engineers and chief engineer Dec. 7, 1838, and took up his residence in Washington. Since 1819, as a member of the board of engineers, Totten had also been engaged in the planning of new works, and at the date of his appointment as chief engineer the system of coast defence had been for about twenty years in progress of construction, during which period most of the important ports and harbors had been at least partially fortified. Called on by Gen. Scott, who reposed in his professional skill the most unbounded confidence, Col. Totten assumed in 1847 the immediate control of the engineering operations of the army destined to invade the Mexican capital, directing in this capacity the siege of Vera Cruz. For his services he was brevetted a brigadier-general Mar. 29, 1847, "for gallant and meritorious conduct at the siege of Vera Cruz." Having thus successfully accomplished the special task for which he had been selected, he left the army and resumed his station at Washington. During the whole time of his chief-engineership he labored indefatigably to bring the ports and harbors along the whole seaboard into a defensible condition. Generally, once in about every two years, he inspected every fort of the U. S., making himself thoroughly familiar with each detail of all the works under charge of his bureau. In addition to the manifold duties of his office, involving the inspection and supervision of the Military Academy, Gen. Totten was an active member of the lighthouse board from its organization in 1852; a regent of the Smithsonian Institution from its establishment in 1846; a corporator of the National Academy of Sciences, created in 1863; one of the harbor commissioners for the cities of New York and Boston; and a member of various scientific associations. In 1815, after careful study, Totten modelled an embrasure for casemated batteries which remained unchanged until 1858, but the casemate continued a subject of study and experiment during most of his life, establishing his right to be considered the author of the American casemate. From 1851 to 1855 he conducted a series of experimenis "on the effects of firing with heavy ordnance from casemate embrasures," and also on the effects of firing against the same embrasures with various kinds of missiles, the results of which were watched with the greatest interest throughout the military world and proved very valuable. D. at Washington, D. C., Apr. 22, 1864. G. C. SIMMONS.

Toucan. See RHAMPHASTIDE.

Tou'cey (ISAAC), LL.D., b. at Newtown, Conn., Nov. 5, 1796; received a private classical education; was admitted to the Hartford bar 1818; member of Congress 1835-39, attorney-general of Connecticut 1842-44, governor 184647, U. S. attorney-general 1848-49, U. S. Senator 1852-57, and secretary of the navy under Pres. Buchanan 1857-61. D. at Hartford July 30, 1869.

Touch'-Paper is a loose bibulous paper which is soaked in solution of saltpetre and then dried. It was used in lighting fires with flint and steel, and is sometimes burnt in a room to relieve the paroxysm of asthma.

Touch, Sense of. Bell and Magendie established the distinction of motor and sensory bundles of nervesthe anterior and posterior roots-on either side of the spinal cord. Through these, from every part of the body, the ultimate sensory nerves, having received impressions by