Entering the soil, it again issues in the form of springs, with a fresh quantity of dissolved mineral matters, which it bears onward to the ocean. Thus, again and again, the raindrops have performed the voyage to the sea, each time laden with the little cargo of dissolved salts. In this manner the ocean has become very saline; it is the receptacle for the soluble matters which are washed out of the earth's crust. The foregoing analysis of sea-water was made by Von Bibra. The numbers represent grains in 1 U. S. gallon of 231 cubic inches. The analysis of the water of the Dead Sea was made by the Herepaths. "In addition to the substances already mentioned, seawater contains about .3 grm. per litre of bromine, and very minute amounts of iodine and fluorine; also silica, phosphoric acid (Voelcker, Chem. Gaz., viii. 346), calcic and magnesic carbonates in small proportions. The amount of carbonates is largest near the land, and is very small in the water of the ocean (J. Davy, Ed. New Phil. Journ., xlvii. 320). Silver, lead, copper, and arsenic have been detected either in sea-water, the ashes of marine plants or animals, or in the deposit formed inside the boilers of ocean steamers (Malaguti, Durocher, Sarzeaud, Ann. Chim. Phys. [3], xxviii. 122: Field, Chem. Gaz., 1857, p. 93; Daubree, Compt. rend., xxxii. 827). In fact, since the ocean is the common recipient of by far the greater part of the water discharged from springs and constituting rivers, most of the material abstracted by their water from the interior and surface of the earth passes into it, and all substances which exist in spring-water may be expected to exist, to some extent, in sea-water. The gaseous contents of sea-water are nitrogen, oxygen, and carbonic anhydride, amounting altogether to from 10 to 30 c. c. per litre, according to different observers. The amount appears to be greater at a depth of about 2000 feet than near the surface, but at about 4000 feet the water contains scarcely any dissolved gases. The relative proportions of the gases have not been estimated with much accuracy. Carbonic anhydride is stated to vary from 2 to nearly 40 e. c. per litre, oxygen from about 1 to 3 c. c. per litre, and nitrogen from 12 to 17 c. c. per litre. (Aimé, Pogg. Ann., Ix. 404; Hayes, Sill. Am. J., 1851, 421; Compt. rend., vi. 616; Lewy, Ann. Chim. Phys., ii, 535; viii. 425; xii. 5; Bischof, Chem. Phys. Geol., i. 113; Thorpe, Chem. Soc. J. [2], v. 189.)"- Watts's Dict. The question arises, If these saline substances are being carried to the sea, is it not becoming much salter? A calculation has been made, by which it appears that about 36 cubic miles of water are poured into the ocean daily by the rivers. But then this vast quantity of water is so small in comparison with the amount of water in the ocean that it would take 30,000 years for all the water in the ocean to rise as vapor, fall as rain, and make one trip back to the ocean again. Inland Seas.-Where evaporation is rapid, inland seas and lakes which drain considerable areas become even more salt than the ocean. The Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake are examples. The Dead Sea receives the waters of the Jordan, which drains the surrounding country. There are no outlets to this lake, and evaporation is rapid. Thus, in the course of time, the Dead Sea has come to contain a large quantity of salt. The above analysis of this water by the Herepaths shows that it contains nearly 31 ounces of saline matter in a gallon, while the water of the Atlantic contains less than 5 ounces. The following table gives a comparison of the waters of some other inland seas with that of the ocean: The difference in the character of the salts contained in the Dead Sea water and in the water of the ocean is not surprising. The ocean receives the saline matters washed out of all the continents, while these inland seas are local in their sources of supply. They receive the washings of limited areas, and the salts they contain must necessarily partake of the character of those particular countries in which they are situated. IV. MINERAL WATERS.-Waters which contain unusually large quantities of any of the ordinary impurities, or which are characterized by unusual constituents, are known as mineral waters. Such waters may be valuable for their medicinal properties or as sources of the special substances which they contain. As examples of medicinal waters we have sulphur springs, which contain sulphuretted hy drogen; chalybeate springs, which contain iron, etc. while brines and borax-waters are valuable for the extraction of salt and borax. of Harrowgate, Croft, and Aix-la-Chapelle are renowned in Europe, while we have in the U. S. numerous examples, among which are the White, Red, and Salt Sulphur springs of Virginia, the White Sulphur springs of Ohio, and the Richfield, Sharon, Chittenango, and Florida springs of New York State. The sulphuretted hydrogen gives these waters a sweet taste and a very peculiar odor, which some consider offensive. These waters have the property of blackening silver; persons who visited these springs in the earlier days of the republic, when specie was current. noticed a gradual darkening of their "change," which finally became quite black, owing to the formation of a black sulphide of silver. The following analyses by the writer show the composition of such waters: In 1 U. S. gallon of 231 cubic inches. Hydrosulphate of sodium Bicarbonate of lime... Sulphur (in suspension).. Sulphide of iron (in suspension) Total solid contents per gallon. Total sulphur in the metallic sulphides and sulphuretted hydrogen.... Cubic Inches of Gas per Gallon. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas Carbonic acid gas....... To the last-mentioned substance the peculiar odor of the water is due, while by the free sulphur, which is formed by the action of the oxygen of the air on this gas, the white milky turbidity is produced. Saline Waters.-The chlorides of sodium, calcium, and magnesium often occur in spring waters in such quantities as to cause a decided saline taste-agreeable in the case of the first-mentioned salt, if not too intense, but bitter and disagreeable when caused by either of the others. Sulphate of soda (Glauber salt) or of magnesia (Epsom salt) may also be the cause of a saline taste. Brines, which are important sources of national wealth in many countries, belong to the first-mentioned class. Nearly all the salt manufactured in the U. S. is obtained from salt springs or wells. This table exhibits analyses of some of the brines of Michigan and New York, made by Dr. C. A. Goessmann of the Massachusetts Agricultural College: other States. Over 9,000,000 bushels of salt have been Sulphur Waters.-Waters containing sulphuretted hy- Similar brines occur in Kansas, Ohio, West Virginia, and drogen gas are found in many parts of the world. Those WATER. manufactured in the neighborhood of Syracuse in a single season. The brine is here pumped up through artesian wells from a depth of 400 or 500 feet. It is undoubtedly derived from beds of rock-salt, such beds having been already discovered in Canada and Western New York. The famous St. Catharine's Spring in Canada contains large quantities of the chlorides of calcium and magnesium, which give its water a bitter taste. The Kissingen bitter water illustrates the class of waters that owe their peculiar qualities to the sulphates of soda and magnesia. Acidulous Springs.-Waters charged with such quantities of carbonic acid as to cause them to sparkle and effervesce as they flow from the spring are called acidulous. Owing to the solvent power of this acid upon limestones and some other rocks, such waters generally hold considerable quantities of lime, magnesia, and iron in solution in the form of bicarbonates; when the latter is present in quantities of a grain or more to the gallon, the spring is called a chalybeate, from the name of an ancient people who worked in iron at an early day, the Chalybes. These waters often contain considerable quantities of chloride of sodium, and frequently bromide and iodide of sodium, as well as bicarbonates of soda and lithia. Such is the character of the most celebrated mineral waters in this country, the well-known springs of Saratoga and Ballston in New York. Fig. 7 is a section of the Saratoga valley, which shows the position of the rocky strata there: Hudsong and Unisa's Trenton Limesto Calciferous Sand rock Potsdam Sandstone FIG. 7. 411 fracture. Their common origin is also shown by analysis; all the springs contain the same constituents in essentially the same order of abundance; they differ in the degree of concentration merely. Those from the deepest strata are the most concentrated. The constituents to which the taste of the water and its most immediate medicinal effects are due are-chloride of sodium, bicarbonate of lime, bicarbonate of magnesia, bicarbonate of soda, and free carbonic acid. Other important though less speedily active constituents are-bicarbonate of iron, bicarbonate of lithia, iodide of sodium, and bromide of sodium. Besides the natural springs, several artesian wells have been bored to depths reaching in some cases 651 feet. All these have been successful in bringing up very concentrated waters of the same chemical character as the natural springs. It is probable, therefore, that water can be obtained anywhere in the southern portions of the county by tapping the underlying Potsdam sandstone. In all of these wells the water rises to and above the surface. Down in the rocky reservoir the water is charged with gases under great pressure. As the water is forced to the surface the pressure diminishes, and a portion of gas escapes with effervescence. The wells deliver, therefore, enormous volumes of gas with the water-a perfect suds of water, carbonic acid, and carburetted hydrogen. Section of Saratoga Valley. Beginning with the uppermost, the rocks of Saratoga county are: (1) the Hudson River and Utica shales and slates; (2) the Trenton limestone; (3) the Calciferous sandrock, which is a silicious limestone; (4) the Potsdam sandstone; and (5) the Laurentian formation of gneiss and granite of unknown thickness. The northern half of the county is occupied by the elevated ranges of Laurentian rocks; flanking these occur the Potsdam, Calciferous, and Trenton beds, which appear in succession in parallel bands through the central part of the county. These are covered in the southern half of the county by the Utica and Hudson River slates and shales. The most remarkable feature is, however, the break or vertical fissure which occurs in the Saratoga valley, which is indicated in the diagram. The strata on one side of the fissure have been elevated above their original position, so that the Potsdam sandstone on the left meets the edges of the Calciferous sandrock, and even the Trenton limestone, on the right. It is in the line of this fissure, or fault, in the towns of Saratoga and Ballston, that the springs occur. The Laurentian rocks, consisting of highly crystalline gneiss, granite, and syenite, are almost impervious, while the overlying Potsdam sandstone is very porous, and capable of holding large quantities of water. In this rock the mineral springs of Saratoga probably have their origin. The surface-waters of the Laurentian hills, flowing down over the exposed edges of the Potsdam beds, penetrate the porous sandstones, become saturated with mineral matter, partly derived, perhaps, from the limestones above, and are forced to the surface at a lower level by hydrostatic pressure. The valley in which the springs all occur indicates the line of a fault or fracture in the rocky crust, the strata on the W. side of which are hundreds of feet above the corresponding strata on the E. The mineral waters probably underlie the southern half of the entire county, many hundred feet below the surface, the accident of the fault determining their appearance as springs in the valley of Saratoga Springs, where, by virtue of the greater elevation of their distant source, they reach the surface through crevices in the rocks produced by the The High Rock Spring was the first to attract attention. It was well known to the Indians, who highly prized the medicinal virtues of its waters. The Indian name Saraghtoga means "place of salt." In 1767 they brought Sir William Johnson to the spring on a litter. The spring rises in a little mound of stone three or four feet high, which appears like a miniature volcano, except that sparkling water instead of melted lava flows from its little crater. When Sir William Johnson visited the spring, and in fact until quite recently, the water did not overflow the mound, but came to within a few inches of the summit, some other hidden outlet permitting it to escape. The Indians had a tradition, however, which was undoubtedly true, that the water formerly flowed over the rim of the opening. A few years ago the property changed hands, and the new owners, convinced that by stopping the lateral outlet they could cause the water again to issue from the mouth of the rock, employed a number of men to undermine the mound, and with a powerful hoisting-derrick to lift it off and set it one side, that the spring might be explored. Analysis of a Fragment of the High Rock. 95.17 2.49 0.07 0.22 0.09 1.11 0.39 0.46 100.00 Just below the mound were found four logs, two of which rested upon the other two at right angles, forming a curb. Under the logs were bundles of twigs resting upon the dark brown or black soil of a previous swamp. Evidently some ancient seekers after health had found the spring in the swamp, and to make it more convenient to secure the water had piled brush around it and then laid down the logs as a curb. The rock was formed by the water. It is composed of tufa, carbonate of lime, and was formed in the same manner as stalactites and stalagmites were formed. As the water flowed over the logs, the evaporation of a portion of the carbonic acid caused the separation of an equivalent quantity of insoluble carbonate of lime, which, layer by layer, built up the mound. Below the rock the workmen followed the spring through 4 feet of tufa and muck. Then they came to a layer of solid tufa 2 feet thick, then 1 foot of muck, in which they found another log. Below this were 3 feet of tufa; and there, 17 feet below the apex of the mound, they found the embers and charcoal of an ancient fire. The Indian tradition went back only to the time when the water overflowed the rock: how many centuries may have elapsed since even the logs were springs to suit all tastes, from the concentrated artesian waters to the mild Saratoga Seltzer, which is used with wines, as the original Seltzer (Selters) from the spring of the late grand duke of Nassau has long been used. Hathorn's Spring is the strongest natural spring yet discovered in the county, while the Ballston Artesian Lithia Spring furAnalyses of some of the Springs and Artesian Wells of Saratoga Co., N. Y. WATER. nishes from its artesian tube the most concentrated water yet obtained. The peculiar excellence of the Congress Spring is due to the fact that it contains very much less iron than any other spring, and that it contains in the most desirable proportions those substances which produce its agreeable flavor and satisfactory medicinal effects; neither holding them in excess nor lacking in anything that is desirable in this class of waters. In the following table are some partial analyses of nearly all the mineral springs of the county, which are sufficiently complete for comparison. The numbers represent grains in 1 U. S. gallon of 231 cubic inches: Table showing the Total Quantities of Mineral Matter left by evaporation, and of some of the more important Con stituents. 413 which contain alkaline carbonates, are largely charged with silica, and in the neighborhood of their outlets large masses of silicious tufa are formed. The water of the famous Geyser in Iceland contains 24 grains of silica in the gallon. There are wonderful geysers in California, and quite recently a region in Montana, on the Upper Yellowstone, has been explored in which from 1000 to 1500 hot springs occur. One of these, the Grant Geyser, throws a column of hot water 8 feet in diameter to a height of over 200 feet at regular intervals of thirty-two hours, while others are in almost constant operation. Borax Waters.-Minute quantities of borax (biborate of soda) are found in many mineral waters-as, for instance, the waters of Saratoga-but in a few localities waters occur so heavily charged with this salt as to make it worth while to extract it for manufacturing purposes. Instead, however, of evaporating the waters to extract the borax which they contain, the borax-gatherers content themselves with collecting the crystals formed by natural evaporation along the margins and on the muddy beds of the borax lakes. For many years considerable quantities of borax, called tincal, were brought from a salt lake in Thibet. More recently California has been found to contain borax lakes of great size, in which occur enormous quantities of this valuable salt. No complete analysis of the waters of these lakes has yet been published, but according to G. E. Moore the water contains 535 grains of borax per gallon. Near the borax lake is situated a wonderful hot spring, from which, and perhaps from others of similar character, the borax of the lake has been derived. It is astonishingly rich in ammonia. Analysis of a Borax Spring, California, by G. E. Moore. Chloride of potassium.. Chloride of sodium..... 40.56 2.40 Grains in a gallon. 72.27 2.84 76.73 2.57 60.01 3.97 78.05 3.26 61.91 1.21 trace. 84.62 75.16, 2.04 63.75 3.36 Biborate of soda, Na0,2BO,.. 103.29 72.88 0.71 Sulphate of lime.. trace. 48.10 1.34 Alumina.... 1.26 89.87 79.80 27.84 2.51 Silicic acid..... 8.23 418.58 Chalybeates. Almost all natural waters contain minute quantities of iron, generally in the form of bicarbonate. In the above analyses of the Saratoga waters are recorded from of a grain to 3 grains of this compound of iron per gallon. All these waters are therefore chalybeates, but the properties of the iron are masked to a greater or less extent by the much larger quantities of other materials. Pliny employed tannic acid in the form of nutgall tincture, which forms ink with the iron, in testing mineral waters before the destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum. In fact, these ferruginous waters are characterized by a styptic or inky taste, due to the iron which they contain. Acid Waters. It occasionally happens that springs are characterized by the presence of free mineral acids, such as sulphuric and hydrochloric. The Rio Vinagre, in South America, is supplied by such springs; and it is stated that this stream carries to the ocean daily an amount of acid equal to 82,720 pounds of oil of vitriol and 69,638 pounds of concentrated muriatic acid. There is a celebrated spring of this character in New York State, known as the Oak Orchard Acid Spring, an analysis of which is here presented: Analysis of the Oak Orchard Acid Water, by Prof. Porter. 1 gallon contains: Alum Waters. In several localities waters occur charged to a greater or less extent with alum, which is a double sulphate of alumina and potassa. These waters frequently contain free sulphuric acid, and it is probable that they were all first charged with this acid, which, acting on feldspathic rocks or slates, has dissolved the alumina, potash, etc., forming the sulphates found in them as they issue at the surface. The Rockbridge Alum Spring and the Church Hill Alum Spring, in Virginia, are examples of this class. Silicious Waters.-Almost all natural waters contain small quantities of silica, in the neighborhood of 1 grain in a gallon; but the waters of hot springs, especially those Total grains in 1 U. S. gallon.......... V. WATER FOR MANUFACTURING PURPOSES.-For manufacturing purposes pond or river water is generally selected, not only because it can generally be obtained in unlimited quantities, but also because it is generally softer than spring-water. For many purposes the impurities of waters are often seriously objectionable. When used in stationary or locomotive boilers, impure water produces incrustations which often form a complete lining. As much as 1300 pounds of calcareous incrustation have been taken from the boiler of a single locomotive on the New York Central R. R. These incrustations are very poor conductors of heat. Their presence in boilers causes, therefore, a great waste of fuel. It is estimated by the French engineers that 45 per cent. of the fuel burned under locomotive boilers is lost owing to the non-conducting power of the incrustations. Furthermore, these scales prevent the contact of the water with the plates of the boiler, the metal becomes therefore overheated, and is rapidly burned out, making frequent repairs necessary. Boiler explosions are sometimes attributed to the presence of incrustations; the metal becoming very much overheated, causes the scale to crack, which permits the water to come in contact with the hot metal; a great quantity of steam being at once generated, the boiler is burst. These incrustations vary somewhat in character with the impurities of the waters by which they are produced. Their chief constituents are carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, and sulphate of lime. The analyses on the following page of incrustations from locomotives on the New York Central R. R. were made by the writer. Various substances are employed to prevent the formation of these incrustations in boilers, some of which are Astrin very effective. Amylaceous, saccharine, and extractive matters tend to prevent the carbonates of lime and magnesia from forming a hard scale, causing them to separate as a loose mud, which can be easily washed from the boiler at convenient intervals. Potatoes, molasses, extractive matters, or substances which yield them, as logwood sawdust, are consequently employed with varying success. gent substances, which contain tannic acid, have a similar action. To this class belong catechu extract, oak sawdust, tan bark, etc. Solid particles, as sawdust, clay, chopped straw, etc., serve to diminish the formation of hard scale by presenting nuclei upon which the earthy carbonates are deposited. For the decomposition of sulphate of lime carbonate of soda or chloride of barium is employed. Sal-ammoniac is sometimes employed to convert the car 2. Stationary engine, machine-shop, Rochester, 10 mos., canal water, well water, 2 mos... 3. Locomotive, No. 211, frt., both roads, Syracuse..... 4. Locomotive, surrounding a brace... 5. Locomotive, No. 127, frt., both roads, Syracuse..... 6. Locomotive, No. 202, frt., both roads, Syracuse..... Average.. 7. †Stationary engine, Niagara Falls, river water..." 8. Stationary engine, Town send's Furnace, Albany. 9. Locomotive, No. 122, Rochester to Buffalo..... 10. Stationary engine, Barhydt and Greenhalgh, Schenectady.... Compact) and crystalline. 3-16ths inch. 74.07 14.78 9.19 0.08 1.14 undet. 0.65 99.91 FIG. 9. 30.07 bonate of lime into soluble chloride of calcium, and thereby prevent its being deposited. The substances which I have enumerated are placed in the boiler from time to time and allowed to act there. An English chemist, Mr. Clark, proposed purifying the water beforehand by adding lime-water, on the principle of similia similibus curantur. The carbonate of lime in the water is held in solution by carbonic acid as a bicarbonate. The lime which Mr. Clark adds takes this extra carbonic acid, forming an insoluble carbonate, and at the same time precipitating the lime of the bicarbonate as insoluble carbonate. The magnesia present is also precipitated by the limewater; but the sulphate of lime, which forms the hardest and most crystalline incrustations, is not removed by this process. The real objection to this process arises from the vast quantities of water required in practice. A locomotive consumes on the average about 45 gallons of water for every mile that it runs, and on the New York Central R. R. alone about 300 locomotives are employed. As at least twenty-four hours are required to enable the precipitated lime to settle from the water, enormous reservoirs or tanks would be required to contain a sufficient supply for a railroad. Dr. Frankland stated in his examination before the parliamentary committee on the London water bill that all the water supplied to Canterbury, Tring, and to the military hospital at Woolwich is purified by this process, at a cost of about $3 per million gallons for the lime. Stillwell's Heater and A, steam enters the heater, and is divided into two currents; B, steam escapes from the heater; C, cold water enters; F, cock with which to regulate supply of cold water; H, door of heater; J, hot glass water-gauge; a water leaves heater; L, overflow cup suspended on the end of cold water pipe; bb bb, removable shelves or depositing surfaces; c, filtering chamber, to be filled with any suitable filtering material. The feath ered arrows indicate the course of the steam, and the plain arrows the course of the water. The bottom of the heater is provided with an opening for drawing off sedi An excellent device has been patented by Stillwell to be used in connection with stationary boilers. It is simply a box containing a great number of horizontal shelves. The water for supplying the boiler passes through this, and the exhaust steam from the to it. The exhaust steam causes the water to boil, and most of the lime which it contains in the form of bicar ment collected there. engine is also admitted A mass weighing 21 ounces, which had apparently filled the space between three tubes. A mass weighing 14 ounces, evidently detached from a tube. A mass weighing 16 ounces, evidently detached from a tube. This number includes those belonging to the two preceding and the two following columns, as obtained by difference. Fair, average represea tatives of the usual incrustations. Exceptional 1.03 0.63 undet. 2.07 97.54 0.36 0.15 1.96 0.62 100.00 incrustations the only ones 92.27 2.92 100.00 of their kind analyzed. | bonate separates as insoluble carbonate, lodging on the shelves or being caught by a filter of straw at the bottom of the box. Great annoyance was formerly experienced by marine engineers whose boilers were fed with sea-water. Not only was there formed a very hard, strong scale of sulphate of lime, often an inch or more in thickness, but even the salt separated, sometimes entirely filling the spaces between the tubes. By noting the density of the water in the boiler with a hydrometer, and blowing out a portion of the concentrated sea-water from time to time, the engineer was able to prevent the separation of salt, but the separation of sulphate of lime could not be prevented. This became so great an evil, causing the very rapid destruction of the boilers, that the use of sea-water had to be abandoned. Marine boilers are now provided with condensers, by which the steam, after doing its work in the cylinder, is condensed to water again and returned to the boiler. A supply of fresh water is taken on board before leaving port, and is used over and over again until the vessel reaches her destination. Often for washing or for cleaning cotton, wool, or other fabrics the impurities of water are a great objection; they destroy soap, and affect colors in dyeing; for sugar-refineries and in brewing the character of the water is of great importance. In fact, the highly-prized flavor of some of the English ales is attributed facetiously to the impurities in the water used. Filtering Water.-Filtration is one of the simplest methods for purifying waters; its action is limited to the suspended impurities, such as mud, animal and vegetable substances, etc. Any porous material may be employed in the construction of a filter, the selection being generally governed by the magnitude of the operation. For eity supplies, reservoirs are constructed which are provided with porous partitions, or so arranged that the water is obliged to percolate through beds of sand and gravel. In many European cities filtering basins of great size are employed for filtering the entire water-supply. Filtering beds are constructed many feet thick, consisting of layers of large stones at the bottom, smaller stones above, and finally coarse sand at the top. Galleries arched with brick serve to receive the filtered water, which is then ready for distribution. The river-waters supplied to London. Liverpool, York, Dublin, Edinburgh, Lyons, Marseilles, FIG. 10. The Triple Filter. Genoa, Leghorn, Berlin, etc., are thus purified. In this country the system of filtering river-water is being now introduced at St. Louis, Schenectady, and elsewhere. Many families now make use of rain-water, which is received in a cistern provided with a filtering partition. The sponge filter (Fig. 10) has recently been devised for domestic use. It contains, in the is a very simple filter, which first place, a little cup filled with coarse charcoal and sand, and provided with a network of wire gauze. Above that is |