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VRANA-VULGATE, THE.

St. Mark's, Whitechapel, London, 1861; was ejected in consequence of having preached a sermon against the doctrine of endless punishment; held for a short time the curacy of Victoria Dock parish, London, and became vicar of Healaugh, Yorkshire, 1864. He began in 1865 the publication of The Sling and the Stone in monthly parts, each consisting of two sermons, and continued the series until 1871. In consequence of these sermons containing sundry opinions upon the doctrines of atonement, justification, incarnation, and inspiration which were held to be inconsistent with the Thirty-nine Articles, Mr. Voysey was prosecuted in the chancery court of York minster by the secretary of the archbishop of York. Decision having been pronounced against him Dec. 1, 1869, he appealed to the judicial committee of the privy council, which confirmed the decision and sentenced the appellant to be deprived of his living and to pay the costs (Feb. 11, 1871), giving him, however, a week in which to retract his opinions. Since that date Mr. Voysey has preached and lectured upon his own responsibility in St. George's Hall, London, being supported by the "Voysey Establishment Fund," to which there were numerous and wealthy subscribers. His sermons, which are increasingly "heretical" in their tone, have been regularly printed every week in the Eastern Post. He has published some controversial pamphlets, and conducted for a few months in 1876 the Langham Magazine, an organ of free religious thought which had but a brief existence. Vra'na, village of Dalmatia, formerly a strongly-fortified place belonging to the Knights of St. John, is on the shore of the Lake of Vrana, famous for its rich eel fisheries. Vukovar', town of Austria, in Slavonia, at the influx of the Vuko in the Danube, has 6782 inhabitants, mostly engaged in silk-culture and silk manufactures.

Vul'can [Lat. Vulcanus], a planet supposed to be revolving around the sun, within the orbit of Mercury. About twenty years ago, Leverrier announced that certain perturbations in the orbit of Mercury could only be accounted for by the existence of another planet still nearer the sun, even as the perturbations of Saturn had enabled him to discover the planet Neptune. Within three years after Leverrier's announcement, Dr. Lescarbault detected the supposed planet in its transit across the sun's disk, but it has not been seen since. At the observatory in Paris, MM. Porro and Wolf of Zurich believe they found the stray planet during its transit in 1876. It is not known whether their observations are sufficient for the precise calculation of the elements of the planet. Kepler's law, however, would reduce the time of its revolution around the sun to about a month. It was not discovered during the watching for its transit in Oct., 1876.

Vulcan, in Roman mythology, the god of fire and of those arts which depend on the use of fire, became in course of time completely identified with the Greek Hephæstus, and was, like him, imagined to have his earthly abodes, his workshops, in the volcanoes, where he was served by the Cyclopes. Numberless myths were formed in connection with Hephaestus and transferred to Vulcan, but most of them were of a humorous turn. He was a son of Zeus and Hera; but he was born lame, and so weak and feeble that Hera, disgusted with him, dropped him from Olym

But Thetis caught him when falling, and brought to a grotto, where he lived for nine years, kindly atten led to by the Oceanides. During this period he made a magnificent throne-chair of gold, but so constructel that any person who sat down on it was held fast, and could not get free unless liberated by the workman himself. The chair was sent to Olympus: Hera sat down on it, and was entrapped. At first, all the summons of Zeus and all the supplications of Hera and the other gods were fruitless; the mother sat chained in Olympus, and the son lay laughing in his grotto. But finally a stratagem succeeded. Dionysus went to the grotto, and soon Hephaestus became tipsy. Crowning himself with flowers and wreaths, the lame and homely man joined the wild chorus of the satyrs, and without noticing what was going on he came dancing into Olympus, where the laughing gods took him captive and coaxed him to release Hera. He was married to Aphrodite, but his marriage was not altogether without troubles. (See Od., viii. 266-358.) He was nevertheless fervently worshipped both in Athens and Rome, and festivals to his honor, the Hephaestia in Athens and the Volcanalia in Rome, were celebrated with great splendor. Vulcanite and Vulcanization. See INDIA-RUBBER, by PROF. C. F. CHANDLER, PH. D., M. D., LL.D.

Vulca'no, or Volcano, the southernmost of the Lipari or Eolian Islands, in the Mediterranean Sea, in lat. 38 22′ N., Jon. 14° 55' E., 12 miles off the northern coast of Sicily, is 7 miles long and 3 miles broad, and contains nearly in the centre a crater over 1200 feet high and about

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one-fourth of a mile in circumference, which constantly emits smoke and vapors charged with sulphur, ammonia, vitriol, and alum. The southern part of the island is very fertile, and produces excellent corn, grapes, fruit, and flax. The interior is sterile, and on the northern side the island is connected by a row of low rocks with the Vulcanello, a minor crater, likewise emitting smoke and vapors.

Vulgate, The. Latin translations of the Bible. The Latin is one of the three oldest versions of the Old Testament, the Greek, the Syriac, and the Latin, and one of the two oldest of the New Testament, the Syriac and the Latin. The history of its origin is lost, but it is certain that it was made in Africa, and in the second century. It would naturally be assumed that it was made in Rome, but at that period the Church in Rome was essentially Greek, the Roman bishops bore Greek names, the earliest Roman liturgy was Greek, and the few remains of Roman Christian literature are Greek. The same statements hold true of Gaul. The Church in Africa, however, seems to have spoken Latin from the first. At what exact time this Church was founded we know not, but at the close of the second century Christians were found there in all places and in every rank. Tertullian of Carthage, the first of the Latin Fathers, directly cites or alludes to every part of the New Testament which we now have, except the second and third Epistles of St. John, the second of St. Peter, and St. James. This version, the Vetus Latina, or Old Latin, was preserved generally unchanged in Northern Africa, but when introduced into cultured Italy its provincial rudeness would offend, and the familiarity of the leading bishops there with Greek would make the revision, so likely to take place, easy of accomplishment. Hence, in the fourth century a revision of the Gospels seems to have been made in Northern Italy, and to have been distinguished by the name Itala, Italian. This version St. Augustine recommends for its accuracy and perspicuity (De Doctr. Christ., 15), and the text of the Gospels as quoted by him, on occasion, in his works bears out his representation; but in the other books the difference cannot be traced with exactness. The Latin version of the New Testament appears to have arisen from individual and successive efforts; for St. Augustine says that any one in the first ages of Christianity who gained possession of a Greek MS., and thought he had a fair knowledge of Greek and Latin, ventured to translate it. And as the LXX. about B. c. 250 furnished the mould in which the thoughts and expressions of the Greek Testament are cast, so the LXX. may have taken a Latin form for the Latin-speaking Jews, and thus may have made ready a dialect for the Latin version of the New Testament. But, however this may have been, there is found, in fact, a substantial similarity between the character of the Old Testament and the New Testament in Latin, and this justifies the belief that there was one Latin version of the Bible current in Africa in the last quarter of the second century.

The name Vulgate-that is Vulgata editio, the current text of Holy Scripture-originally answered to the designation of the Greek version of the Old Testament, the KoLÝŇ ékdoσis. As the retus versio of the Old Testament was made from the LXX., and in substance identified with it, St. Jerome introduces Latin quotations from the Old Testament under the name of LXX. or Vulgata editio indifferently, and thus this term was transferred from the current

Greek to the current Latin of the Old Testament. This

use of the expression Vulgata editio continued to later times. It is found in St. Augustine, Ado of Vienne, and in Roger Bacon, and it is recognized even by Bellarmin. The Council of Trent, therefore, historically erred in styling St. Jerome's Bible Vulgata editio. The Latin Fathers themselves commonly spoke of St. Jerome's version as nostra versio, "our version," or nostri codices, “our books;" misled by the associations of their own period, and gave but the Tridentine prelates, like many later scholars, were this designation a wider range than it ever had in early

times.

After the translation received a definite shape in Africa, it was jealously guarded by ecclesiastical use, and was retained there even when St. Jerome's version was almost uni

versally received elsewhere; and the disturbance caused by an African bishop's attempt to introduce one of the changes of St. Jerome shows how carefully intentional alterations were avoided. But at the same time the text suffered by the natural corruptions of copying and by the interpolation of glosses, especially in the Gospels, and thus the different forms of the text became almost as numerous as the copies. The one remedy for this confusion was to go back to the first form in Greek.

St. Jerome had not long been in Rome (A. D. 383), when Pope Damasus consulted him on points of scriptural eriticism. The answers the pope received may well have encouraged him to seek for greater services, and, apparently

in the same year, he applied to St. Jerome for a revision of the current Latin version of the New Testament by means of the Greek original. St. Jerome undertook it, and confined himself strictly to the labors of a reviser, and therefore when St. Augustine spoke of him as translating the Gospel, St. Jerome corrected him, saying that he had simply emended it. In the prosecution of his work he collated early Greek MSS. and introduced the necessary changes, but he preserved the old renderings where the sense was not injured by it. Some of his alterations were made purely on linguistic grounds, but it is impossible to ascertain on what rules he proceeded; others involved questions of interpretation; the greater number, however, consisted in the removal of the interpolations by which the first three Gospels especially were corrupted. These interpo

lations must have been far more numerous than are found in existing copies, but instances still occur to show the service he rendered in checking the perpetuation of apocryphal glosses and additions.

St. Jerome's Preface, addressed to Damasus, speaks only of a revision of the Gospels; and St. Augustine, writing to St. Jerome, alludes to the Gospel, and there is no preface to any other book such as is elsewhere found before St. Jerome's versions or editions. Bat this omission is probably due to the fact that the rest of the New Testament was preserved comparatively pure. For St. Jerome enumerates among his works his Restoration of the New Testament to Harmony with the Greek, using this general expression, and in writing to Marcella on the charges brought against him for introducing changes in the Gospels, he quotes three passages from the Epistles to show the superiority of his revision over the old version.

The old version of the Old Testament was made from the unrevised form of the LXX., and thus included many false readings and other imperfections.

Therefore, about

the same period in which St. Jerome revised the New Testament he put his hand to the Old Testament. He first undertook and accomplished a revision of the Psalter. This was done with the aid of the LXX., but not very thoroughly. It was called the Roman Psalter, probably because made for the use of the Church in Rome at the request of Damasus. Afterwards, urged by Paula and Eustochium, he made a new and more careful version, which became very popular, and which Gregory of Tours is said to have introduced into France, hence called the Gallican Psalter. From this work he proceeded to a revision of the rest of the Old Testament by means of the LXX., which he appears to have completed in four or five years. About the year 374 he began the study of Hebrew, which he zealously pursued for some years, and about 389 published several treatises connectel with this study. These paved the way for his new version of the Old Testament direct from the Hebrew, which he now undertook and in 392 seems to have completed. Portions of this, as the books of Solomon, Judith, and Tobit, were done in great haste, but the greater part was accomplished successfully. This stupendous work is an enduring monument of his piety, his genius, and his learning, and has made his name as illustrious in the Western as the great Hexapla made the name of Origen in the Eastern Church.

The critical labors of St. Jerome were received with an outburst of reproach. He was accused, as other such laborers have been, of disturbing the peace of the Church and of undermining the foundations of the ancient faith. Acknowledged errors were looked upon as hallowed by usage, and few had either interest or courage to seek the purest text of Holy Scripture. Even St. Augustine was carried away by popular prejudice and endeavored to discourage St. Jerome from his presumptuous work, as it appeared to him; and to the last he himself adhered, as we have noticed above, to the Versio Itala, which he had first employed. But the improved translation gradually came into use side by side with the old, and at length supplanted it; and this it did without any direct ecclesiastical authority.

But the Latin Bible, which thus became current under the name of St. Jerome, was a composite work, containing elements that belonged to every period and form of the Latin version: (1) Curerised Old Latin, Wisdom, Ecelus., 1 and 2 Maccabees, and Baruch; (2) Old Latin revised from the LXX., the Psalter; (3) St. Jerome's Translation from the original Greek, Judith, Tobit; (4) St. Jerome's translation from the original Hebrew, the Old Testament except the Psalter; (5) Old Latin revised from the Greek original, the Gospels; (6) Old Latin thus revised cursorily, the rest of the New Testament.

The MS. remains of the Old Latin text of the Old Tes tament are very scanty. There still exist important MSS. of the New Testament: of the African text, Coder Vercellensis, at Vercelli, of the fourth century; Cod. Claromontanus, in the Vatican, of the fourth or fifth century; Cod.

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Bobbiensis, at Turin, of the fifth century, a remarkable revision of this text; of the Italic text, Cod. Brixianus, of the sixth century. Of St. Jerome's text we have Cod. Amiatinus, at Florence, of the sixth century; Cod. Toletanus, at Toledo, in Gothic letter, of about the eighth century; and Cod. Fuldensis, containing the New Testament merely.

At the invention of the art of printing, St. Jerome's Bible was the first book produced from movable types, about 1455. It was printed again and again by various hands and in various forms, but it was not until the heat of controversy in the sixteenth century exaggerated the differences in the text and in the interpretation that an authorized edition was determined on for the Church of Rome. This was undertaken by Pope Sixtus Quintus, and put forth in 1590. Though declared by the pontiff authentical and in a manner absolutely perfect, it contained such typographical and other errors as to compel the publication of a second and revised edition in 1592, of another in 1593, and still another in 1598, with a triple list of errata, one for each of the preceding editions. This is the standard of the Vulgate, or Roman Catholic Bible, of the present day.

The MS. form of St. Jerome's Bible-which, upon the whole, stands highest in the estimation of scholars-is the Coder Amiatinus, mentioned above. The editors employed by Pope Sixtus rightly valued this MS., and in some passages solely or chiefly followed its authority. The portion containing the New Testament has been repeatedly published, and is easily accessible, as ed. by Fleck (1840, 12mo), common text with the Amiatine variations; by Tischendorf (1854, roy. 8vo), Amiatine text with learned prolegomena.

We subjoin a specimen of the diction of the Vulgate, under different heads, extending over the first six or ten chapters of St. Matthew, employing the Greek and the Latin text of Prof. Tischendorf in his N. T. Triglottum, published in 1854: (1) It preserves the exact order of the original in very many instances. At the opening of the Gospel we find, Liber generationis Jesu Christi filii David, filii Abraham. Abraham genuit Isaac, Isaac autem genuit Jacob. This follows the Greek word by word: Bisos yerέσεως Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ υἱοῦ Δαυίδ υἱοῦ ̓Αβραάμ. ̓Αβραὰμ ἐγεν · νησεν τὸν Ἰσαάκ, Ἰσαὰκ δὲ ἐγέννησεν τὸν Ἰακώβ. So in claures and phrases: vi. 6, 2ù dè öraν проσеνxη, Tu autem cum orabis; iv. 22, oi de, illi autem. The advantage of following the order of the Greek sometimes appears conspicuously, as in iv. 10, Dominum Deum tuum adorabis et illi moli servies-an order preserved in English only by the Rheims version, and far more forcible than the common order. In iii. 1. 'Ev dè rais nμépais èxeivais is given by In diebus autem illis: here (a) the postpositive particle autem stands for the postpositive de, but the Vulgate, faithful to Latin usage, puts it after the noun, not after the preposition, as in the Greek; and (b) the demonstrative follows its noun like the Greek; now, common as this order is in Greek, it is comparatively rare in Latin, though found in the best writers (Cicero, Livy). In rò σKÓTOS Hóσov, vi. 23, we find the interrogative (exclamatory) after its noun, and this position adopted by the Latin, tenebræ quantæ erunt! This secondary position of an interrogative is rather uncommon, but found both in prose and poetry (Cic., Ad Fam., xvi. 18; Cæs., B. G., vii. 4; Hor., Sat., i. 5, 43). But we meet here and there with a departure from the arrangement of the Greek without apparent reason: in i. 12, Mera &è riv cтOIKEσiar is given by Et post transmigrationem, instead of Post transmigrationem autem; and in ii. 5 and iv. 20, oi dé is given by At illi, instead of Illi autem; and this is the more strange, as the stricter form is common in the Vulgate.

(2) Many of its renderings are peculiarly exact in sense or form, or both, in reference to the Greek. In i. 11. ¿mẻ tâc METOLKEσías Baẞvλ@vos, is given by in transmigratione Babylonis, which, though unclassical, as we shall presently see. preserves the euphemism of the Greek Testament and of the LXX. for "captivity," and of all our versions, Wycliffe and the Rheims alone have retained it. In ii. 19, Τελευτή σavros de TO 'Houdov, the gen. abs, is exactly given by the abl. abs., Defuncto autem Herode, and so in vi. 3. In iii. 2, Meravoeire is given by Panitentiam agite, and this Latin was rendered by Wycliffe " Do penance," which the Rheims followed; but, though this English phrase has now, even to the Roman communion, come to mean rather mortification of the body than sorrow of mind, yet the Latin is a good classical equivalent of the Greek, and is actually found in Petronius, Sat., 132, in Tacitus, De Orat., 15, in Pliny. Ep., vii. 10, and has the express sanction of Quintilian in a critical observation in ix. 3, 12. In iii. 9, un doέnre is given in form by ne relitis, and so in v. 42; vi. 13; vi. 25, while, as we shall see below, the freer and quite classic noli and nolite with the inf. prevails in the Vulgate. In iii. 15, 'Apes aprɩ is ingeniously rendered by Sine modo, and in iv.

VULGATE, THE.

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17, Arò Tore by Exinde (Plaut., Cic., Verg.), and vi. 25, Διὰ τοῦτο by Ideo. In iv. 16, ὁ λαὸς ὁ καθήμενος is nicely given by qui sedebat, "who were sitting," and viii. 24, ὥστε τὸ πλοῖον καλύπτεσθαι by ita ut navicula operiretur, was being covered," while the A. V. has "sat," and "was covered." In viii. 16, daiμovicoμévovs is rightly rendered dɛmonia habentes, "possessed with demons," while all our versions have here "devils," as if it were the plural of AaBolos, "the devil;" but the plural in this sense nowhere occurs in Holy Scripture; and though "devils" is found also four times in our version of the Old Testament, the Vulgate has likewise dæmonia uniformly there.

(3) Certain of its renderings seem more or less inexact or faulty. In i. 20, Tavra dè avτoù évdvundévtos is given by Hæc autem eo eogitante, but this would be the proper rendering of the pres. participle, as is given by the Vulgate in Acts x. 19, while here the proper rendering would have been, Cum autem hæc cogitarisset; we also find the aor. part. of the Greek given by the pres. part. in the Vulgate in i. 24; ii. 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11 bis, 16 bis, 21, 22, 23; iii. 7; iv. 3, 9, 21; v. 1, 2, 24. These instances are enumerated in full, because there is an impression, even among scholars, that our loose use in English of the pres. part. is largely due to the influence of the A. V.; yet against these twenty cases of such loose use in the Vulgate only four can be adduced from the same portion of the A. V., and one of these (iii. 15) is logically right: 'Αποκριθεὶς δὲ ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν, “ And Jesus answering said." In ii. 8 the diminutive audiov is given by puer, instead of the dim. puellus, by which the Vulgate always renders this elsewhere, except in Tobit i. 8, where it uses puerulus. In iv. 21, avrov-aurŵv, both reflexive, are rendered eorum-sua for sua-sua. In vi. 19, Stopvoσovou is rendered effodiunt for perfodiunt, which the Vulgate rightly uses in xxiv. 13 and in Ezek. xii. 12. In vi. 24, évòs arbegera is given by unum sustinebit instead of uni adharebit, which the Vulgate employs in the parallel passage, Luke xvi. 13. In viii. 4, "Opa undevì einns is given by Vide nemini dixeris for Vide ne cui dixeris.

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(4) Many of its renderings are strictly in accordance with Latin usage, even when this differs from the Greek. have the Greek part. given by cum and the subj.: (a) the aor. part., i. 18, Mynorevbeions yàp tŷs μηTPós, Cum esset desponsata mater, and so ii. 1, 9, 13, 19; iv. 2, 12; v. 1; (b) the pres. part., i. 19, díxacos ov, cum esset justus. We have the Greek aor. part. given by the abl. abs.: Kaλéσas Tous payous, vocatis magis; so ii. 11, 12; iv. 13, 22; vi. 6. In i. 20, un doẞnons is given by the idiomatic noli timere ; so v. 17; vi. 2, 7, 8, 19, 31, 34, but in iii. 9, as we have seen, and elsewhere, we find the Greek form imitated, ne velitis. In iv. 1 we have reiparovai, denoting a purpose, rendered by ut temptaretur, and in iii. 13, Toû Sanrionvaι by ut baptizaretur, though, as we shall see, the Greek inf. of purpose the Vulgate commonly gives by an inf., simply to preserve the form of expression.

(5) It not unfrequently gives literal renderings from the Greek in violation of the Latin idiom. In i. 11, ènì rês METOLKEσias Baẞva@vos is given by in transmigratione Babylonis, for eum Babylona commigrassent (Liv.); iii. 8, nonσATE-Kарmóν, facite fructum, for edere, ferre fructum (Cic., Quint.); iii. 12, ovvágel-eis тhν àñоvýηy, congregabit-in horreum, for percipere, horreo condere (Cic., Hor.); iii. 17, év y evdóenoa, in quo mihi complacui, for qui mihi complacuit (this Greek was rendered literally only by the Vulgate and Wycliffe in whiche I have plesid to me"-and no one of our versions but Wycliffe's has here retained the past tense of the original); iv. 4, οὐκ ἐπ' ἄρτῳ μόνῳ ἀλλ' ἐν παντὶ pnuari, non in pane solo-sed in omni verbo, for the simple abl., pane-verbo; so v. 13, 28; vi. 7; iv. 19, Aeure Oпiσw μov, Veuite post me, for Sequimini me; iv. 24, à¤ñλðev ǹ ȧkoń, abiit opinio, for exiit opinio (Suet.); vi. 16, àpavíšovou тà пpóσwra avrov, exterminant facies suas, for vultus deformare, turpare, or fadare (Verg., Ov.); vi. 34, μepiμvýσeɩ éavτns, sollicitus erit sibi, for pro se (Cic.), or de se (Cic. and St. Jerome himself, Adr. Jor., 113).

(6) It employs some words, forms, and phrases of very unusual, but still of authorized Latin. In i. 19 αὐτὴν δειγ pariga, eam traducere: this verb is so used by Livy and Martial; ib. añoλvσai avrýv, dimittere eam: this is an early and late phrase, being found in Plautus and Suetonius; i. 16, ȧmò derous, a bimatu: this noun is used by Varro and Pliny; v. 13, ἐὰν δὲ τὸ ἅλας μωρανθῇ, εἰ sal eramuerit : Cie., in Dir., ii. 17, says, salsamentum (the brine) vetustate evainit; v. 43, μσýjσels tòν éxûpóv σov, odio habebis inimicum tum: an early phrase used by Plautus; v. 45, önws yévnote, titie, for ut fiatis: esse is found so used in Cic., De Off. i. 11, and elsewhere; vi. 12, ἄφες ἡμῖν τὰ ὀφειλήματα ἡμῶν, dimittite nobis debita nostra: compare alicni tributa dimittere," to remit," Tac., Hist., iii. 55.

7) It employs some words and phrases quite unexampled in Early or Classical Latin, and found only in Ecclesiastical and Later Latin. In iii. 12, diaka@apiei, permundabit:

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only Later Latin for purgabit; iv. 2, notevσas, cum jejunasset; only ecclesiastical for cum jejunus fuisset; iv. 10, Ynaye, Vade: only poetic and used in the sense of "Go!" for Apage, Abi hine; v. 5, #apakλn@ýσovтai, consolabuntur : here used as passive, a later usage (Justinian); v. 16, dogaowow, glorificent: only eccl. for laude afficere, laudibus efferre; vi. 9, aуiaσdýτw, sanctificetur; only ecel. and later for sanctum sit; vi. 11, Lovatov, supersubstantialem: a word coined by St. Jerome for this place.

(8) In the use of Particles it commonly follows classical usage, even in nice points. In iii. 11, μév-dé, quidem-autem: employed by Cicero occasionally, and as if in imitation of the Greek formula; v. 13, éàr dé, quod si: used by the purest writers; dé is regularly given by autem, and kai by et, but dé, resumptive, in ii. 1 is well given by ergo.

(9) Some of its uses of Particles are uncommon, others anexampled. In v. 29, συμφέρει—σοὶ ἵνα—καὶ μή, expedit tibi ut-quam, as now and then in Tacitus, for magis quam ; vi. 14, éár-éàv dé, si-si autem for si-sin or sin autem ; v. 12, Xaipere-öri, Gaudete—quoniam, for quod, quia, or cum; vi. 29, ovde Zoλouwv, nec Salamon, for ne Salamon quidem; nor is the familiar classical ne-quidem known to the Vulgate New Testament any more than our familiar not even is known to the Authorized Version of the New Testament, except once in a question (1 Cor. xi. 14); nec-quidem, however, is found in 1 Cor. iii. 2, and ne-quidem in the Vulgate Old Testament. One of the most remarkable peculiarities of the diction of the Vulgate remains to be noticed under this head. It is well known that verbs of hearing, saying, thinking, etc., are construed in Greek sometimes with ort, "that," and a finite verb, and sometimes with the acc. and the inf.; while in Latin the latter is the regular construction. But besides its objective meaning, "that," ört has, according to its context, a causal force, "because." Now, the Vulgate, to preserve the exact form of the Greek, commonly construes these verbs with a particle, but, as if taking the wrong meaning of ör, renders, for example, in ii. 22, ȧkovσas öri by audiens quia; so v. 21, 27, 33, 38, 43; in ii. 16, idov öri by videns quoniam ; in vi. 32, older-öri by scit quia; in iii. 9, Aéyw ört by dico quoniam, and so v. 20, 28; vi. 29; and by dico quia in v. 22, 32; in ii. 23, rò pŋdér— or by quod dictum est-quoniam; in iv. 6, yéураnтаι öтi by scriptum est quia, and so v. 20, 22; in v. 23, μvnodns or by recordatus fueris quia; in v. 17, μǹ vopionte ÖTɩ by nolite putare quoniam; in vi. 7, 8oкovσi öтɩ by putant quia; in vi. 26, éμßλéαTE ÖTɩ by respicite quoniam. And in all this portion we find quod used only once in this relation, though at certain periods of the language and in certain cases this particle alone stood in such relation; that one instance is in iv. 12, where 'Axovoas dè or is rendered Cum audisset quod.

(10) In the use of the moods it generally conforms to classical usage. Omitting illustrations of this conformity, we give the exceptions, which are as follows: in ii. 2, Hoμe Kuvĥσαι avтų, venimus adorare eum: only a poetic construction for ut adoremus, and so v. 17; viii. 29; ix. 13; x. 34, 35; in iii. 11, eiμì ikavós—Baoráσai, sum dignus portare: also poetic for sum dignus qui portem; in iv. 19, ποιήσω ὑμᾶς ἁλιεῖς ἀνθρώπων, faciam vos feri piscatores hominum: rare, but found in Varro and Sallust for faciam ut, etc.; in a few instances, only three, the subjunctive is strangely used after certain particles: ii. 16, videns quoniam inlusus esset; ii. 22, audiens quia regnaret; and iv. 12, Cum audisset quod Johannes traditus esset. vi. 28 we find the indicative in an indirect question: Considerate lilia agri quomodo crescunt, for crescant; but this usage is often found in Plautus and Terence, in a few instances in Cicero, and here and there in the later poets.

In

Such are some of the characteristics of the Vulgate appearing from an examination of a portion of one of the Gospels. Its excellences are great and marvellous, and even its defects, generally arising from a scrupulous desire to keep close to the side of the sacred original, often suggest or confirm points of the gravest importance. Prof. Lachmann, Prof. Tischendorf, and Dr. Tregelles, the three greatest names connected with the textual criticism of the Greek Testament in recent times, adopting the view of the learned Bentley, regarded the Latin in the purest and most ancient forms as the most important witness to the integrity of the New Testament next to the Greek MSS., nor did they fail to observe that the Latin, in some phases, goes back to a period which no Greek MS. now extant represents.

The Vulgate is, to a degree not generally understood, the venerable parent of our own translation, the Authorized Version. The history of our English Bible begins with Wycliffe, and the Wycliffite version, as it is now more strictly called, was made directly from the Vulgate. But while this great work was completed by Wycliffe and his coadjutors, a certain preparatory work had, in God's providence, already been done. Cædmon embodied the entire

history of the Bible in the alliterative Anglo-Saxon poetry; Aldhelm, bishop of Sherborne in the seventh century, translated the Psalter; Venerable Bede translated the Gospel of St. John; Alfred the Great translated the four chapters of Exodus xx.-xxiv. as the basis of his laws, rendered some of the Psalms and other portions of the Bible for the use of his own children, and an old tradition-though we cannot substantiate it now-makes him the translator of the entire Bible; there is an Anglo-Saxon version of the Gospels, interlinear with the Vulgate, the Durham Book, which belongs to the ninth or tenth century; there is another, called the Rushworth Gloss, of the same period in the Bodleian Library; there is another of a somewhat later date in the Bodleian and in Christ Church College, Cambridge; we have the famous Ormulum, a metrical paraphrase of the Gospels, assigned to the latter half of the twelfth century; there is a prose translation into Norman French of about 1260, which shows that there must have been a demand for the Holy Scriptures among the rich and refined, and perhaps in the court itself; three versions of the Psalms, that portion of the Bible which has always been most dear to the hearts of the English people, were made in these early days-one toward the close of the thirteenth century, another by Schorham about 1320, and the third by Rolle of Hampole about 1349. All these partial and preliminary versions also, it is to be remembered, were made directly from copies of the Vulgate.

The influence of the Wycliffite version, representing the whole Vulgate, has been great and constant on all the subsequent English versions and revisions, furnishing apt and established words and phrases, which the new translators and revisers were neither willing nor able to lay aside. When the Roman Catholic exiles in the reign of Elizabeth produced at Rheims an English version for their own brethren, it was professed, of course, to be made out of the authentical Latin, but the translators in innumerable cases, and most wisely, followed the previous English versions; and though the Rheims has defects which time has brought to light, yet it has such and so many good points, chiefly by exactly representing the original Greek in adhering closely to the faithful Latin forms, that any new and excellent revision of our English Bible must often follow in its steps, as the Rheims did in those of the Reformers.

We have spoken in general of our indebtedness to the Vulgate. To be more particular, when the Vulgate was turned into its earliest English form, the Anglo-Saxon version, it was hardly possible that this act should not have greatly modified our language by introducing new words, mostly religious, and by giving us new forms of construction; and again, this work would be carried further by the Wycliffite version, and was perhaps nearly consummated in the Rheims, the last great version that preceded our own. Our Christian nomenclature itself has thus in great measure been furnished to us by the Vulgate, and many of these precious words were either invented in Latin or there first used in their higher and spiritual sense; such as regeneration, conversion, justification, sanctification, predestination, election, propitiation, reconciliation, Savior, salvation, Redeemer, redemption, Mediator, Spirit, cross, faith, grace, revelation, inspiration, Scripture, Testament, communion, orders, congregation; some words are Greek, but given to us through the Latin, as baptism, Paraclete, and presbyter or priest; while some were coined in Latin to copy the Greek, as transgress from transgredior, in imitation of παραβαίνω.

If we say, as we may with truth, that Christianity in the first instance was received in the Greek language and through Greek thought, we may surely say that it was adopted in Europe chiefly in Latin forms; and the influence of the Vulgate upon the religious language, thought, and culture of Europe, and so also upon our own, can hardly be overestimated. (The Vulgate, Canon Westcott, in Smith's Dietionary; Horne's Introduction to the Scriptures, vol. iv., Dr. Tregelles; N. T. Lat., Fleck (1840); N. T. ex Cod. Amiatino, Prof. Tischendorf (1854); Tiro Letters on 1 John r. 7 (Discussion of N. African Latin), Card. Wiseman, Essays (vol. i., 1853); Geschichte der Vulgata, Kaulen (1868); Itala und Vulgata, Rönsch (1875); Itala-fragmente, Ziegler (1876).) CHARLES SHORT.

Vulkoj, town of Transylvania, circle of Carlsburg, forms the centre of several rich gold, silver, copper, and quicksilver mines, and is the seat of a considerable mining industry. Its mines form one of the very few places in which tellurium has been found in its elementary state. P. about 3000.

Vulpius (CHRISTIAN AUGUST), b. at Weimar Jan. 23, 1762; studied at Jena and Erlangen; received an appointment at the library in Weimar in 1797, and d. there June 26, 1827. He wrote a great multitude of operas, romantic dramas, romances, tales, etc., and edited Curiositäten der physisch-litterarisch-artistisch-historische Vor

und Mitwelt (10 vols., 1810-23), and Die Vorzeit (4 vols., 1817-21), which contain some interesting materials. One of his original works became very famous-Rinaldo Rinaldini, der Räuberhauptmann (1797). It was republished over and over again, translated into many foreign languages, and imitated by all the scribblers of Europe. It is still of interest to the student, showing whither the imagination of that age liked to wander when it was unoccupied by real business and uncultivated by true art.His sister, JOHANNA CHRISTIANA SOPHIE VULPIUs, born at Weimar June 1, 1765, met Goethe for the first time in the summer of 1788, when she addressed him in the park of Weimar in order to present a petition to him; removed shortly after into his house as a kind of stewardess; bore him a son, August von Goethe, Dec. 25, 1789, and was married to him Oct. 19, 1806, a few days after the battle of Jena. Goethe chose this time in order to attract as little attention to the affair as possible. She continued to address him as Herr Geheimerath, and he would sometimes say with a smile: Die Kleine kann gar keine Verse verstehen.” Nevertheless, when she d. (June 6, 1816) Goethe mourned her sincerely, and she was spoken of with kindness and with respect by all his friends.

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Vulture [from Lat. Vultur], a name applied to certain representatives of the group or sub-order (generally called order) Raptores or tomorphæ.

I. By almost all ornithologists until recently, and even by the latest monographer of the Raptores (Sharpe, in Catalogue of the Accipitres or Diurnal Birds of Prey, in 1874), the name, under its Latin form, Vulturida, was employed as a family name for all the diurnal raptorial birds distinguished by the "head naked or clothed with down; no true feathers on crown of head." The group thus defined embraced the typical vultures and allied forms of the Old World and the condor, turkey-buzzards, etc., of the New. But the researches of several modern authors-but first and especially of Prof. Huxley-have amply demonstrated that under this term two very distinct types of structure have been confounded, and that the superficial agreement between those types is a simple analogical one, and the absence of cephalic feathers has doubtless reference to their habits of feeding. It has been also shown, on the one hand, that the vultures of the Old World are closely related to the true Falconida, especially the buteonine forms, and that their separation from the latter as a distinct family can scarcely be justified; and, on the other hand, that the analogues of the New World are very distinct in several points of structure, and should therefore be isolated as an independent family. The two forms will, then, be considered under separate heads: (1) Falconidæ vulturinæ and (2) Cathartida.

(1) Falconidæ vulturinæ, or Old- World Vultures.—It is very doubtful whether even sub-family rank should be attributed to the group of Old-World vultures, and it is only in deference to general usage that the heading is preserved. The forms in question are simply Falconida without true feathers on the crown of the head, and, so far as known, have no other co-ordinated characters. Like the typical Falconidæ, the nostrils are not perforate. According to Sharpe, the group is divisible into six genera-viz. (1) Vultur, with 1 species; (2) Gyps, with 6; (3) Pseudogyps, with 2; (4) Otogyps, with 2: (5) Lophogyps, with 1; and (6) Neophron, with 4; to which some (e. g. G. R. Gray) add others-Gypohierar and Gypaëtus. These essentially agree in habits, living for the most part on dead animal matter, and even appearing to prefer that which is putrescent, although not confining themselves to such. When an animal has died the carcass is soon discovered by these birds, and they fly from all points of the compass, and in company share the banquet. They alight for this purpose, and stalk to the animal, pulling at the flesh and swallowing the torn piece, unless, indeed, it is pulled away by a neighbor, contests for possession of the dainty bits constantly going on. After eating to satiety, they rest in a lethargic manner near the remains of the carcass, and are scarcely able to fly, and when disturbed generally vomit their ingesta before they are able to take to wing. They are birds of bold flight, and soar high in the air, scanning the ground in search of food. This they seem to find as much by the sense of sight, if not more than by that of smell. The species, as might naturally be supposed, are mostly inhabitants of warm countries, especially Asia and Africa; several, however, inhabit Southern Europe, they being Vultur monachus (the typical vulture), Gyps fulcus, and Otogyps auricularis.

(2) Cathartida, or New- World Vultures.-These differ in many respects from their Old-World analogues, and contrast with them especially in the perforate internasal membrane, through which anything can be seen on the opposite side. They essentially agree in habits with the typical vultures. Their characteristics will be found under the head CATHARTIDE in APPENDIX. THEODORE GILL.

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W, a letter composed of two V's or two U's, the U and V | having been once interchangeable. W is either a vowel with the sound of oo, or more frequently it is a consonant, having almost the same vowel-sound, but partly suppressed by the closure of the lips, and on this account it is freely interchangeable with b and e. The English w-sound was represented by Latin V-consonant and a form of it in Anglo-Saxon, where it is often improperly written with w. Wis the proper representative of a sound allied to English and French r, but made with the lips alone, and its earliest occurrence is said to be in the year 536 on coins, in the name Witiges. The corresponding voiceless sound is the Greek phi. The French-who, like the other Romanic nations, have no character -express the sound in the middle of the word by on (Edouard Edward), and in the beginning by Gu (Guillaume William). The Spaniards use G (Guadalquivir) or hu (Chihuahua). In German, e sounds like r, and v like f. W in chemistry designates tungsten (or wolfram). It is an abbreviation for west, and in martyrologies stands for widow.

Waa'gen (GUSTAV FRIEDRICH), b. at Hamburg Feb. 11, 1794: was educated in Silesia, whither his father, a painter of some reputation, removed in 1807; made the campaigns of 1813-14 as a volunteer; studied art subsequently under the influence of Ludwig Tieck, a relative of his, at Breslau, Dresden, Heidelberg, and Munich; was appointed director of the picture-gallery of the Museum of Berlin in 1830; visited England and France; became professor of the history of art at the University of Berlin in 1844: visited Spain, St. Petersburg, etc. D. at Copenhagen July 15, 1868. His principal works are-Kunstwerke und Künstler in England und Paris (3 vols., 1837–39), of which a much enlarged edition of the English part, Treasures of Art in Great Britain, appeared in 3 vols. in 1854, and was followed by a supplement in 1857; Kunstwerke und Künstler in Deutschland (2 vols., 1843-45), Die Gemäldesammlung in der kaiserlichen Eremitage in St. Petersburg (1864), Die vornehmsten Kunstdenkmäler in Wien (2 vols., 1866-67).

Waal, The, river of the Netherlands, is one of the principal arms of the Rhine, thrown off near the village of Tannerden, whence it flows past Nymegen, Tiel, NieuwSt.-Andries, between the Boemmeler and Tielerward, joins the Maas, and receives the name of Merwede. The Merwede passes by Gorinchen and Dordrecht, and becomes the Oude, or Old Mans. But, like all the other arms of the Rhine, it gradually loses its power and becomes a shallow, almost stagnant, water.

Wabash, city and R. R. centre, cap. of Wabash co., Ind. (see map of Indiana, ref. 4-F, for location of county), on Wabash River, 136 miles S. W. of Toledo, has an excellent high school, R. R. repair and machine shops, woollen, flouring, and oil mills, furniture, carriage, and spoke factories, planing-mills, machine-shops, etc. P. in 1870, 2581; in 1880, 3800.

Wa'basha, city and R. R. centre, cap. of Wabashaw co., Minn. (see map of Minnesota, ref. 10-G, for location of county), on Chicago Milwaukee and St. Paul R. R., upon the W. bank of Mississippi River, has fine high school, a foundry and machine-shops, furniture-factory, etc. in 1870, 1739; in 1880, 2088; in 1885, 2514.

P.

Wa'bash College, an institution of learning at Crawfordsville, Ind., founded 1833 under Presbyterian management, has four college edifices, a cabinet of 30,000 specimens, and libraries of 30,000 volumes, and an average of nearly 100 students in the regular college course. The president from 1841 to 1861 was Rev. Charles White, D. D., who was succeeded by the present incumbent, Rev. Joseph F. Tuttle, D. D.

Wabash River rises in Mercer co., O., flows at first N. to Wabash City, where it receives Big Beaver River; turning N. W., it sweeps in a devious course across Indians, and during the last 120 miles of its course forms the boundary between that State and Illinois. It is the largest northern tributary of the Ohio. It has been navigated at high water by steamboats as far as Lafayette, Ind.; and from Terre Haute to Huntington, Ind., it is followed by Wabash and Erie Canal. Length, 550 miles.

Waccamaw River rises in Waccamaw Lake and in the marshes of Bladen, Columbus, and Brunswick cos.,

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N. C., flows into South Carolina in a direction nearly parallel to the coast, and at Mount Gilead, S. C., unites with the Great Pedee, which indeed is usually called Waccamaw below the junction. It finally flows into Winyaw Bay. The Waccamaw proper is navigable to Conwayboro', S. C.

Wace (HENRY), b. in London Dec. 10, 1836, was educated at Brasenose College, Oxford, where he graduated B. A. in 1860, and was ordained in 1861. He served as curate at St. Luke's, Berwick street, London, 1861-63, and at St. James's, Piccadilly, 1863-69, and was lecturer at Grosvenor chapel, South Audley street, 1870-72. In 1872 he was elected by the benchers of Lincoln's Inn chaplain of that society, and in 1880 preacher of Lincoln's Inn. In 1875 he was appointed professor of ecclesiastical history in King's College, London, and in 1883 he was made principal of that institution. He delivered the Boyle lectures for 1874 and 1875 on the subject of Christianity and Morality, and in 1879 the Bampton lectures, on The Foundations of Faith. In conjunction with Dr. William Smith, he is the editor of the Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Facts, and Doctrines, during the first Eight Centuries. He is also the author of lectures delivered in 1881 at St. James's, Piccadilly, on The Principal Facts in the Life of our Lord, and the Authority of the Evangelical Narratives.

Wace (RICHARD or ROBERT), usually known as MASTER WACE, the name being a corruption of the Latin Eustacins, and otherwise written Waice, Gace, and Gasse, b. in the island of Jersey about 1115; was taken to Caen, Normandy, in childhood, and there educated; afterward resided in France, but returned to Caen; became a priest and reading-clerk in the royal chapel; was made canon of Bayeux by Henry II. of England about 1160. D. in England about 1180. He wrote while at Caen, and dedicated to Henry II. (about 1155), Brut d'Angleterre, a rhyming paraphrase, in Romance verse of above 15,000 lines, of Geoffrey of Monmouth's British History, and Le Roman de Rou, et des Ducs de Normandie (about 1170), a poem of nearly 17,000 lines, partly in alexandrine, partly in octosyllabic verse, forming a chronicle of the Norman dukes to his own time, including the conquest of England, and extremely valuable as the best monument of the Norman French language of that period. The latter work was printed for the first time in a complete form by Frédéric Pluquet (Rouen, 2 vols., 1827), and the former by Le Roux de Lincy (Rouen, 2 vols., 183638). The portion of the Roman de Rou relating to the conquest of England was translated into English prose by Edgar Taylor, with notes and illustrations, Master Wace, his Chronicle of the Norman Conquest (1837), and by Sir Alexander Malet, Bart., The Conquest of England, from Wace's Poem, now first translated into English Rhyme (London, 1860), including also the text, illustrated by photoFour shorter poems graphs from the Bayeux tapestry. are doubtfully attributed to Wace-a shorter chronicle of the dukes of Normandy (Caen, 1824), L'Establissement de la Conception Notre Dame, dite la Fête aux Normands (Caen, 1842), La Vie de St. Nicholas (Paris, 1820-34), and a romance about the Virgin, still in MS. PORTER C. BLISS.

Wachenhusen (HANS), b. at Triest Dec. 31, 1827, made extensive travels in the Scandinavian countries, Iceland and Finland, and made for himself a great name as military reporter to various German papers during the Crimean war of 1856, the Italian war of 1859, Garibaldi's Sicilian campaign of 1860, Langiewicz's insurrection in Poland, 1863, the Sleswick-Holstein war of 1864, the Austro-Prussian war of 1866, and the Franco-German war of 1870. Besides those reports, he has published Ein Besuch in Türkeschen Lager (1855), Das neue Paris (1855), Unter der weissen Adler (1863), Von den Düppeler Schauzen (1864), Freischaren und Royalisten (1867), Die Frauen des Kaiserreichs (1872).

Wachtel (THEODOR), b. in Hamburg Mar. 10, 1823, the son of a cab-driver, and a cab-driver himself when an accident drew attention to the magnificent tenor voice of which he was in possession. He took lessons for a year and a half, and then made his debut at Hamburg in the Postillon de Lonjumeau. After short engagements at Schwerin and Dresden he finally settled in Vienna, where for many years he was the favorite of all opera-goers, but at the same time he made short star-trips every season.

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