surrounded him he took in an easy and refined manner. D. July 29, 1644. CLEMENS PETERSEN.

Urba'na, city and R. R. junction, cap. of Champaign co., Ill. (see map of Illinois, ref. 6-F, for location of county), is the seat of the State Industrial University. P. in 1570, 2277; in 1880, 2942.

Urbana, city and R. R. centre, cap. of Champaign co., 0. see map of Ohio, ref. 5-D, for location of county), on New York Pennsylvania and Ohio, Indiana Bloomington and Western, and Chicago St. Louis and Pacific R. Rs., 100 miles N. of Cincinnati and 46 miles W. of Columbus, is the centre of a rich agricultural district. The place is very elegantly improved. The business centres chiefly at Monument Square, in the middle of which is an elegant granite monument surmounted by a bronze statue of a private soldier, erected at a cost of $15,000 by the people of Champaign co. in commemoration of the fallen soldiers of the war of 1861-65. The free schools include several fine buildings, one of which, the high school, was erected at a cost of $125,000. The Urbana University, the only Swedenborgian school in the U. S., is located here, and has an attendance from many States of the Union. The city contains a public library, and the manufactories include the shops of the U. S. Rolling Stock Co., the Urbana Machine-works, manufactures of ploughs, water-wheels, and corn-planters; carriage-factories, wagon-factories, broomfactories, shoe-factory, a stove-foundry, steam tannery, steam furniture-factory, door and sash factories, woollenfactory, and many other industries. P. of city in 1870, 4276; in 1880, 6252.

Urbi'no (Urbinum Hortense), town of Italy, province of the same name, on two steep and lofty hills of the Umbrian chain, between the Metauro and the Foglia, about 25 miles S. W. of Pesaro. The walls were erected by the celebrated mathematician F. Commandini, and the town was afterward further strengthened with a castle and towers by the lords of Montefeltro (1213). The large cathedral, which contains some good works of art, is of the seventeenth century, the ancient church on this site having been destroyed by an earthquake. Other churches contained frescoes and oil paintings by Salimbeni, by Barocci, by the father of Raphael, and by Titian, but the movable pictures have been mostly transferred to the municipal gallery. The ducal palace (begun 1447) is a noble edifice in the early Renaissance style, and, besides much striking mediæval ornament, contains ancient inscriptions and bas-reliefs of great interest. Several of the private palaces also possess rare artistic treasures, especially that of the Staccoli Castracane, where Ghirlandajo, Guido Reni, G. Bellini, Barocci, Raphael, Luca della Robbia, etc., are all more or less well represented, and where there is a fine collection of the famous ceramics of Urbino, Casteldurante, and Gubbio. One of the chief points of interest here is the modest house in which the immortal Raphael Sanzio was born (1483), a fact which is commemorated by a somewhat long inscription, beginning Nunquam moriturus. Urbino is among the most ancient cities of Italy, acquired the rights of Roman citizenship in 89 B. C., and suffered many vicissitudes during the breaking up of the Roman empire. It recovered some importance in the early part of the thirteenth century, but the first who assumed the title of duke of Urbino was Federico di Montefeltro (1474), and he and his immediate successors, as wise and virtuous as they were prosperous, made Urbino famous in the history of the mediæval world. In 1508 the duchy passed to the Della Rovere house; in 1631 it became the direct property of the Church, and so remained, with the brief exception of the French domination, till united to the kingdom of Italy. Urbino is distinguished for the number of remarkable men to whom it has given birth, and for the general intelligence and activity of its citizens. Both rural and manufacturing industries are flourishing. P. 16,194.

Urchin-Fish, or Porcupine-Fish. See DIODON. Urchin, Sea. See ECHINUS.

Ure (ANDREW), M. D., F. R. S., b. at Glasgow, Scotland, May 17, 1778; educated at the universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh, where he also graduated in medicine: became professor of chemistry at the Andersonian Institution at Glasgow 1804, and director of the Glasgow Observatory 109: removed to London 1830; was appointed analytical chemist to the board of customs 1834; acquired a high reputation by his original scientific researches, and especially by his successful application of chemical discoveries to the arts and to manufactures. D. in London Jan. 2, 1857. Author of A New Systematic Table of the Materia Medica (1513): A Dictionary of Chemistry (2 vols., 1821; republished in the U. S. by Drs. Robert Hare and Franklin

Bache, Philadelphia, 1821)-a work which until turd pearance of that of Watts was the undisputed standard; A

1

219

New System of Geology (1829); The Philosophy of Manufactures (1835); The Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain (2 vols., 1836; new ed. 1861); and A Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines (2 vols., 1837-39), which, as rewritten and enlarged by Dr. Robert Hunt (3 vols., 1859-60; 7th ed. 1875), still enjoys a high reputation.

U'rea [Fr. urée ; Ger. Harnstoff ; Urenoxyd Ammoniak], (CH4N20), an isomere of ammonium cyanate, was first obtained by Rouelle in 1773, afterward in a state of greater purity by Foureroy and Vauquelin in 1799. It is an es

sential constituent of the urine of mammiferous animals,

particularly of the Carnivora, but is also found in that of birds and of Amphibia. Urea also occurs, to some extent, in human blood and perspiration, in the vitreous humor of the eye, and in the lymph and chyle of various animals. It is the chief outlet for the oxidized nitrogen of the tissues of the system, a healthy adult excreting more than an ounce daily. It is not formed in the kidneys, which appear merely to separate it from the blood in which it is pre-existent. Urea may be formed artificially in several ways, but its preparation by the action of cyanic acid on ammonia (discovered by Wöhler in 1828) possesses special interest as being the earliest synthetic formation of an organic compound:

It is also obtained from cyanamide (CN2H2) by the addition of 1 equivalent of water, and by the decomposition of numerous complex organic compounds, such as creatine, guanine, and URIC ACID (which see); likewise by the action of phosgen gas (COCl2) on ammonia; but in the laboratory it is usually prepared either from urine or by the evaporation of a solution of ammonium cyanate. In the former process the urine is evaporated to dryness on the water-bath, and the residual mass exhausted with alcohol, which is evaporated to dryness. The second residue is then extracted with pure alcohol, which, upon evaporation, leaves the urea in a slightly-colored state; or the urine is concentrated by evaporation, and nitric or oxalic acid added, by which a precipitate of nitrate or oxalate of urea is formed, from which the urea is obtained by decomposition with baric or calcic carbonate, filtering the solution, and purifying the urea by repeated recrystallization from alcohol. Urea is, however, most readily and abundantly prepared from ammonium cyanate in the following manner: Potassium cyanate is first formed by heating a mixture of 56 parts of carefully-dried potassic ferrocyanide and 28 parts of dry black oxide of manganese to dull redness. The residue, when cold, is treated with cold water, and 41 parts of ammonic sulphate are added, when ammonium cyanate and potassic sulphate are formed. The solution is then evaporated, treated with hot alcohol, from which, on cooling, the urea crystallizes out. A still more advantageous method is to digest plumbic cyanate with its equivalent of ammonic sulphate at a low heat, and evaporate the filtered liquid.

Urea has a sp. gr. of 1.30 (Bödeker) or of 1.35 (Proust and Schabus). It crystallizes in colorless striated prisms, which fuse at 248° F., but are decomposed at a higher temperature. It is very soluble in water and in hot alcohol, but is nearly insoluble in ether. Its solution possesses a neutral reaction and a cooling, bitter taste. When heated in a sealed tube to about 284° F., urea combines with 2 molecules of water, and is converted into ammonic carbonate:

CH,N20 + 2H2O = (H4N)2CO3.

An analogous change takes place in the organism, owing to the action of the mucus of the bladder, to which the ammoniacal odor of stale urine is due. When it is heated above its melting-point, biuret (C202H3N3) and cyanuric acid (C303H3N3) are formed, with evolution of ammonia. Urea combines with acids, forming crystalline compounds, and also with metallic oxides, such as those of mercury and silver. Numerous substitution-derivatives of urea (compound ureas) have also been obtained. It is easily detected in animal fluids by precipitating the alcoholic extract with nitric acid, and examining the crystalline lamina thrown down with the microscope goniometer. They should exhibit an angle of 82°. (For the quantitative estimation of urea in urine see URINE, CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND ANALYSIS OF.) J. P. BATTERSHALL.

Uredin'eæ [Lat. urere, to "burn"], an order of Fungi to which belong the rusts and many of the mildews which attack living plants. With regard to the species of this order, two different views are held by mycologists. The more recent continental writers consider that many of the so-called species of the older mycologists are nothing but different forms of the same species, while nearly all British and some of the older continental writers on Fungi do not

consider that there is any essential connection between the

different forms. As the subject is not a little perplexing, we shall illustrate with the common black mildew of grains, found also on most of the grasses. The black spots known as mildew are found late in summer and in autumn in streaks on the leaves and stems, and occasionally on the glumes, of grasses. The black color is caused by the spores of a fungus to which the name Puccinia graminis has been given. The mycelium or vegetative threads of this species extend throughout the stem and leaves, and sometimes even into the roots, of the grass. They burst finally through the epidermis, and bear dark-colored spores, consisting of two cells, as shown in Fig. 1, a. In the following spring, or during the winter if kept sufficiently moist and warm, each of these cells germinates and pushes out a tube, as in Fig. 1, b,which tube quickly divides into three or four parts by cross-partitions, and bears the bodies represented in FIG. 1.

0

a

grass,

Fig. 1, c. The latter, if placed on moistened leaves of grow by pushing out a tube for a short time, but soon perish. If, however, they are placed on leaves of the common barberry, and kept in a sufficiently moist position, the tubes may be seen to penetrate into the interior of the barberry leaf, on which, at the end of a few days, a red spot appears, and the tissue of the leaf becomes thickened. In this red spot there appears on the upper surface of the leaf a number of dark-colored bodies, which, when examined by the microscope, exhibit the structure shown in Fig. 2. a. Shortly afterward there grow out from the under surface of the leaf a number of cup-shaped bodies (Fig. 2, b), conFIG. 2.

a vs

taining orange-colored spores, at first arranged in rows, but soon breaking up into powder. These cup-shaped bodies are commonly called cluster-cups, and are found on the barberry in spring and early summer. The spores contained in the cluster-cup germinate at once by pushing out a tube; but if sown on barberry leaves, the germinating tubes soon perish without entering the leaves. When, however, the spores produced in the cluster-cups on the barberry are sown on moistened leaves of grass, the germinating threads which they give out penetrate into the leaves, and in a few weeks burst through the epidermis and bear a number of spores, as in Fig. 1, d. The spores are oval, of an orange color, slightly granulated, and borne singly on a short stalk. The spots caused by the orange-colored spores are known as rust. The rust spots are later in the season succeeded by the black spots already described as mildew. The mildew spots are produced either by the growth onward of the same mycelial filaments which have produced the rust spots, or by the germination of the rust spores.

From the above account it will be seen that the fungus growing on grain and producing the mildew has four different states-first, that represented in Fig. 1, a, found on grain and grasses; second, the body, represented in Fig. 1, e; third, the form found on barberry leaves, composed of the two bodies represented in Fig. 2, a, found on the upper surface, and Fig. 2, b, found on the under surface of the leaves; fourth, the form known as rust, found on grains and grasses, Fig. 1, d. The following terms have been given to the different states mentioned above:

I. TELEUTOSPORES (Fig. 1, α).—On grains and grasses in autumn; spores two-celled, dark colored, generally known as black mildew.

II. PROMYCELIUM (Fig. 1, b) and SPORIDIA (Fig. 1, c).— Growing directly from spores of first state.

III. ECIDIUM (Fig. 2).-On barberry leaves in spring, consists of spermogonia (Fig. 2, a) and æeidia (Fig. 2, b), which are vulga:ly known as cluster-cups.

Formerly-and the view is still maintained by British and some continental botanists-it was supposed that each of the forms above mentioned was a distinct species of fungus, and a specific name was given to each. The telentospore state was called Puccinia graminis, and placed in the order Pucciniai; the second, or sporidial state, was unknown until discovered by Gasparrini in 1848; the acidial state was known as Ecidium berberidis, and placed in the order Ecidiacei; the uredo state as Uredo rubigo, and placed in the order Uredinei. The connection between the different forms, however, had been for a long time suspected, and De Bary in 1863 (see Annales des Sciences, 4me série, tome xx.) showed that the teleutospores of certain species of Uredineæ, when sown on the leaves of appropriate plants, caused in a short time an æcidium to appear. In this way an explanation was found of the fact observed by farmers, that barberry bushes growing near grain seemed to cause rust. He also showed that æcidial spores of Ecidium berberidis germinate upon, and make their way into, the leaves of different grains.

With the previous description of the development of Puccinia graminis the general characteristics of the order can be understood. The species of the order pass through different stages, either on the same or different species of phanerogams. The stages are usually four in number, as in Puccinia graminis, but in some cases one or more stages are omitted in the development of the fungus. Thus, in the genus Podisoma the stages are reduced to two, teleutospores and æcidial spores. It will easily be understood that with such a complicated system of development any attempt, at present, to classify the Uredine scientifically must be very imperfect. The species included under the order are very numerous, and there is scarcely any order of phanerogams which they may not attack. They are perhaps more injurious to grain than other plants, and cause damage not by attacking the grain itself, but the stalks and leaves. The Rosacea are very liable to their attacks, as are also the Coniferæ. Among the more curious members of the order are the species of Podisoma, the most striking of which is Podisoma macropus, which attacks the red cedar, and is known as cedar-apple. The fungus is the teleutospore or final state of a species which has no uredo state, and whose æcidium state, represented by a member of the so-called genus Rastelia, is probably found on some of the Rosaceæ. Oersted first published observations to show that the Roestelia were states of species of Podisoma. His observations, however, did not extend to the American species. The spores of the cedar-apple consist of two cells, as in the mildew of grain, and are packed together in a sort of jelly. In damp weather the jelly expands, and the juniper trees look as if covered with bright yellow flowers. The genus Phragmidium differs in its perfect state from Podisoma and Puccinia in having its spores three or more celled. The species of this genus are most frequent on species of Rosa and Rubus. Uromyces has its final spores one-celled, and attacks frequently leguminous plants, particularly beans. But of all the genera of the order, Puccinia is the most injurious. Puccinia graminis is the common grain mildew, Puccinia malvacearum the hollyhock mildew, and Puccinia zex attacks the leaves of Indian corn. The spores of many of the Uredinea germinate at once: others require a period of rest, generally ripening in the fall and germinating the following spring. This is notably the case with the species of Melampora, which inhabit the thick leaves of willows and poplars, and cannot be made to germinate until after a period of repose. As yet, no sexual organs have been found in the Uredineæ. It has been supposed, but not yet certainly shown, that the spiral body sometimes found in young acidia corresponds to the solecite or vermiform process of the Ascomycetes.

Those desirous of studying the general structure of this order are referred to the following monographs: Tulasne, L. R., Annales des Sciences naturelles, 3me série, tome vii. (1847), and 4me série, tome ii. (1854); De Bary, Anton, Untersuchung über die Brandpilze (1853); Annales des Sciences naturelles, 4me série, tome xx. (1863). (See also USTILAGINEÆ.) W. G. FARLOW,

Uredines. See UREDINEE.

Uredo. See UREDINEÆ.

Ure'ter [Gr. ovpornp], the excretory duct of the kidney. In man it is a cylindrical membranous tube about seventeen inches long, and as large as a goosequill, passing from a fibrous (or outer), a muscular, and a mucous (or inner) the pelvis of the kidney to the base of the bladder. It has Each kidney normally has a distinct ureter. Urethra [Gr. ovp@pa], the name of the membranous canal by which the urine is emptied from the bladder. In the

coat.

female it is but a short passage opening below the clitoris. In the male it is a canal of about 8-9" in length, and of a somewhat complicated structure, conducting not only the urine, but also the semen. Going from the bladder outward, the urethra is divided into three parts: (1) the prostatic part, surrounded by the prostatic gland, in which (part) are the openings of the seminal ducts; (2) the membranaceous part, 8"-10"" long; and (3) the cavernous or spongy part, surrounded by the spongy tissues of the penis. The calibre of the urethral canal is different in the different parts and different individuals, and ranges from 3"" to 7"" in diameter, the orifice being the narrowest part. The urethra is lined throughout with a delicate coating of mucous membrane, which is a direct continuation of the mucous membrane of the bladder. (For obstructions of the urethra see STRICTURE.) F. ZINSSER.

Urfah. See ORFA.

Ur'ga'[“palace ”], the Russian name of the Mongolian Bogdo-Kuren or Da-Kuren ("holy camp"), the capital of Northern Mongolia, has 30,000 inhabitants, and is on the Tola, in lat. 47° 58′ N., lon. 1064° E., at an elevation of 4370 feet, on the line between Kiachta and Peking which forms the principal caravan-route between Russia and China. Urga consists, like all Mongolian towns, of a Mongolian and a Chinese quarter. The latter, which contains the fort, is also called Mai-mas-chen (“tradingplace"), and stands 24 miles from Bogdo-Kuren. Both places are disgustingly dirty. Bogdo-Kuren contains large Booddhistic monasteries and temples, and is the seat of the supreme Mongolian Kutukhtu, who is considered the terrestrial representative of Booddha, and ranks in holiness next to the Dalai-Lama of Lhassa and the Panchess Rinpoche of Shigartse, both in Thibet. The monasteries are extensive structures of stone, and contain numerous shrines and relics, which are subjects of the deepest veneration; the occupants, the monks, are called lama, and number about 10,000. The other houses are miserable huts or tents of felt, incredibly dirty and swarming with clouds of parasitic insects. The custom is to not bury the dead, but to leave them, in accordance with Booddhistic doctrines, to be devoured by the dogs and birds of prey; the corpses of poor people are simply thrown into the streets; those of people better off are carried to a place outside the city; only those of priests and princes are interred. The Mongols settled here belong to the Khalka tribe. During summer, numerous pilgrims from all parts of Mongolia gather to the city, and a brisk trade springs up. The unit of value is the tea-brick. Tea, mixed with cows' blood, is moulded into the form of bricks, and from 12 to 15 such bricks are paid for a sheep, from 120 to 150 for a camel. The surrounding country has a South Siberian character; the mean temperature of the year is 25.70° F.; the number of rainy or snowy days is 41. A Russian consul is stationed here, with a small detachment of Cossacks for his protection. Russian merchants and scholars often visit Urga, and undertake from here extensive journeys into Northern Mongolia. EMIL SCHLAGINTWEIT.

U'ri, one of the forest cantons of Switzerland, bordering N. on Lake Lucerne, and having St. Gothard on its southern frontier, comprises an area of 415 sq. m., with 23,694 inhabitants, who are Roman Catholics and speak German. It consists of one valley, enclosed by lofty mountains and traversed by the Reuss. Rearing cattle and dairy-farming are the principal employments. Chief town, Altorf.

U'ric Acid, or Lith'ic Acid [Fr. acide urique; Ger. Harnsäure], (C5N4H4O3), first discovered by Scheele in 1776. and subsequently more thoroughly investigated by Wöhler and Liebig in 1838. More recently Bäyer has given special attention to the uric group of compounds. Uric acid occurs in a small proportion in human urine, but is much more abundantly contained in the excretions of insects, land-reptiles, and birds, usually as the ammonic salt. It is extensively found in the guano-beds of the

Pacific islands, also in the form of ammonic urate, and is said to be contained in the human spleen, liver, and lungs; also in the blood, which latter, in certain diseases, as gout and albuminuria, contains a very considerable amount; indeed, in persons suffering from the former affection it often accumulates around the joints, forming what are commonly but incorrectly termed "chalk-stones," which consist chiefly of sodic urate. When secreted in excess, it is discharged by the kidneys, and is deposited from the urine as red gravel, or it accumulates in the bladder and forms a constituent of URINARY CALCULI (which see).

Uric acid is most advantageously prepared from the dried urine of serpents, by dissolving the powdered mass in a large quantity of boiling water, to which caustic potash enough to dissolve all the acid is added, and heating until ammoniacal vapors cease. The fluid is then filtered, and the potassic urate decomposed by hydrochloric acid, uric

221

acid appearing in minute white crystals. It can also be obtained by boiling guano with a weak borax solution, whereby a solution of sodic urate is formed, from which the uric acid is precipitated by hydrochloric acid. Uric acid crystallizes in small white rhombic prisms; but if slowly deposited from a dilute solution, it frequently separates in large crystals containing 2 molecules of water; when obtained from animal fluids, its crystalline form is often very much modified. It is almost insoluble in water, requiring 10,000 parts of cold water, and is quite insoluble in alcohol and in ether. It dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid, from which it is precipitated in a hydrated form by the addition of water. When dry uric acid is heated, it is decomposed without fusion, and hydrocyanic acid is evolved, a sublimate, consisting of cyanuric acid, urea, with ammonia cyanate and carbonate, being formed.

The most remarkable property of uric acid is the facility acid, plumbic dioxide, etc., and transformed into numerous with which it is altered by oxidizing agents, such as nitric well-defined crystalline compounds, some of which, however, are obtained from the immediate products of oxidation by the action of reducing agents, acids, and alkalies. More than thirty of these compounds (many of which are termed ureides) have been prepared, including the following: alloxan, alloxantine, uramil, allantoin, glycoluril, murexide; also the acids uroxanie, barbituric, biolurie, thionuric, oxaluric, parabanic, and mesoxalic. If the lastnamed acid is submitted to the action of reducing agents, tartronic acid is obtained; upon oxidation it furnishes oxalic acid. Uric acid, as yet, has not been synthetically produced. According to Gerhardt, it is the diureide of tartronic acid, but all attempts to prepare it from tartronie acid and urea have been unsuccessful, although, as stated above, tartronic acid is obtained from its dehydrogenized product (mesoxalic acid) by taking up 2 atoms of hydrogen.

Uric acid is dibasic, and forms both normal and acid salts. (See URATES.) Its presence can often be recognized with the aid of the microscope by its peculiar crystalline structure-rhombic tablets, frequently associated with dumb-bell-shaped crystals. When moistened with nitric acid and gently heated, a residue is obtained, which, upon treatment with ammonia, assumes a fine violet-red color (murexide), and when treated with potassa acquires a violet-blue color (potassic purpurate). It may also be detected the solution on paper moistened with argentie nitrate, upon by dissolving in sodic carbonate, and placing a drop of which it produces a brown spot, caused by the reduction of the silver. (For the quantitative estimation of uric acid in urine see URINE, CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND ANALYSIS OF.) One of the uric acid series (murexide) has received practical application in the dyeing of silks and cotton, to which it imparts a fine purple color. Silks are dyed by simple immersion in a mixture of the dye with corrosive sublimate; cotton goods are mordanted with plumbic nitrate. J. P. BATTERSHALL.

U'rim and Thum'mim [Hebrew plu. abstracts, signifying "enlightenment and fulfilment" or "completion"]. the name of that sacred symbol of the high priest of Israel which was given at Sinai (Ex. xxviii. 30), but lost for ever at the destruction of the first temple (Ez. ii. 63; Neh. vii. 65). It was placed either upon the choshen or breastplate of the high priest, thus being the four rows of precious stones (Kalisch), or else within its pocket. In the latter case it was composed of two precious stones (Fürst), or even three (Gesenius), and used to cast lots; or else of two symbolical images like the corresponding Egyptian ones (Plumptre); or, more probably, one object, either stone or parchment, bearing the most sacred name of the God of Israel (Saalschütz); or else, still better, a sacred pledge of "complete enlightenment" (Bähr), occupying the same relative position to the choshen and high priest's garments that the tables of the Law did to the ark and the taber

nacle.

C. A. BRIGGS.

Both

U'rinary Calculi and Deposits. Deposits.-Urine in disease often deposits on standing various kinds of sediments, which differ in properties and composition according to the causes which induce their formation. morphological and chemical bodies are thus separated. The former class includes such substances as blood, pus, and mucus-corpuscles, epithelial scales, spermatozoa, etc.; to the latter class belong urates, uric acid, phosphates, calcic oxalates and carbonates, hippuric acid, cystine, leucine, xanthine, tyrosine, etc. These deposits form light flocculent powders or compact grains (gravel), or they collect in larger concretions, forming calculi. The most common sediments contain uric acid. This often separates in a free state, forming red gravel (see URIC ACID), or it is deposited in the form of ammonic or sodic urates, which sometimes appear in perfectly healthy urine. A crystal

As a rule, the oxalic calculi are the hardest, the phosphatic being the softest. The following are the best characterized forms of calculi: Uric acid calculi, of a brownish-red color and smooth surface. When heated they fuse, and emit a peculiar odor, leaving but a little ash. They give the reactions for URIC ACID, mentioned under that head. Ammonic urate calculus is rare in occurrence. It is more easily soluble in water than the preceding, and dissolves in hot potassa solution, with evolution of ammonia. Calric oxalate constitutes the mulberry calculus, which has a dark-brown color and is very hard. When heated before the blowpipe, it first blackens, then burns to a white ash consisting of calcic carbonate. It dissolves in hydrochloric and in nitric acids, but not in acetic acid. Calcic phosphate forms the bone-earth calculus (OsP2Cas), which is of rare occurrence, and often consists of laminæ of crystals radiating from a nucleus. It is of a light-brown color, dissolves in hydrochloric acid, but is infusible before the blowpipe. Ammonio-magnesic phosphate, or triple phosphate calculus (O8P2Mg2Am2), is white and brittle; fuses with difficulty, emitting an ammoniacal odor, and readily dissolves in acids. Fusible calculus, which appears to be a mixture of the two preceding varieties, forms white friable masses which often acquire a large size. It fuses readily, and is easily soluble in acids. Xanthine calculi (see XANTHINE) are of a pale-brown color, have a lamellar fracture and a polished surface, which acquires a high lustre when rubbed. They dissolve in potash solution and in nitric acid, but very sparingly in hydrochloric acid. Cystine calculi are semi-transparent, and have a dark-yellow color and a crystalline texture. The last two forms are of unfrequent occurrence. Compound calculi, consisting of a succession of lamina composed of several of the foregoing varieties, also occur. J. P. BATTERSHALL.

U'rine, Chemical Composition and Analysis of. Urine in health possesses a light-amber color, a slight acid reaction, a peculiar odor, and a bitter saline taste. During the process of digestion it sometimes acquires an alkaline reaction. It has a sp. gr. of 1.024, but this also changes with the diet and state of health of the individual. It becomes more strongly alkaline on standing, owing to the formation of ammonic carbonate. (See UREA.) The urine excreted in the morning has a different composition from that passed in the evening, which has absorbed various substances taken into the stomach during the day. An average sample of healthy human urine has the following composition:

In 1000 parts, water = 956.80 parts.
In 100 parts of solid matter:

oxygen, 4.54 free and 2.07 combined carbonic acid. Certain pigments, the composition of which is uncertain, are likewise present. According to Thudichum, the normal coloring-matter consists of a yellow amorphous mass, which he terms urochrome, but to which Schunek gives the name urian and the formula C43H51NO26. Indigo-blue appears to be a product of the decomposition of this or other pigments, as it occurs in urine which has been exposed to the air for some time. Among the other bodies said to be contained in urine may be mentioned certain ferments and albuminoid matters, caseine, leucine, tyrosine, taurine, acetone, and taurocholic, glycocholic, and cholic acids, which latter are present only in the abnormal or diseased excretion. The acidity of urine is due to the presence of hydric-sodic phosphate, and hippuric and lactic acids. Numerous substances appear to pass unchanged through the urine, such as many alkaline saits and numerous compounds of metals, alkaloids and organic acids, while others suffer a partial or complete transformation; thus, malic acid is converted into succinic acid; sulphites and sulphides are changed into sulphates; tannic acid is converted into gallic acid; benzoic, cinnamic, and quinic acids are transformed into hippuric acid; iodine changes to alkaline iodides, potassic ferrocyanide to the ferricyanide; and indigo-blue is reduced to indigo-white. In the disease diabetes a large amount of grape-sugar (glucose) is contained in the urine, owing to an incomplete digestion of the food, sometimes in the proportion of over a pound in the liquid voided during twenty-four hours. In albuminuria a large quantity of albumen is secreted, the formation of which is due to a lack of secretive power on the part of the kidneys.

ANALYSIS OF URINE.-Urea may be determined in a variety of ways. Liebig's volumetric method is executed as follows: Dissolve 100 grammes of pure mercury in 500 grammes of nitric acid, evaporate to a syrup, add a little nitric acid, and dilute to 1400 cubic centimètres; this forms the standard mercury solution, 1 cubic centimètre of which is equal to 1 centigramme of urea. Its strength should be actually determined by estimating a known weight of urea in the manner described further on. A baryta solution is next prepared by mixing 2 volumes of baryta-water and 1 volume of a solution of baric nitrate, both saturated in the cold 15 c. c. of this baryta mixture are then added to 30 c. c. of the urine to be tested; the liquid is well stirred, and then filtered through dry paper: 15 c. c. of the filtrate (= 10 c. c. of the original urine) are now measured off in a beaker-glass, and the standard mercury solution is slowly added from a burette as long as any precipitation occurs, the precise end of the operation being determined by adding a drop of the mixture to a solution of sodic carbonate contained in a watch-glass, when a distinct yellow color should be produced. The number of cubic centimètres of the mercury solution used is read off, each cubic centimètre indicating 1 centigramme of urea in the 10 cubic centimètres of urine. In this method the presence of an excess of urea and of sodic chloride affects the accuracy of the result, and renders a correction of the figures obtained necessary. Bunsen's method is based upon the decomposition

of urea into carbonic acid and ammonia. A known quantity of the prepared urine is mixed with a solution of barie chloride containing ammonia; the filtered liquid is heated in a sealed tube to 400° F.; and the baric carbonate formed weighed 1 gramme of the carbonate = .3041 gramme of urea. In Heintz and Ragsky's method, 20 c. c. of the urine are precipitated with platinic tetrachloride; the precipitate is washed with alcohol, dried, and weighed. From 2 to 5 c. c. of the same urine are then heated in a platinum capsule with an equal amount of sulphuric acid, and the mixture, when cold, is diluted with water, filtered, and the filtrate likewise treated with the platinic salt. Both precip itates are calculated for 100 e. c. of urine, and the weight of the first is subtracted from that of the second: the difference, multiplied by .13423, gives the percentage of urea. Davey's method consists in adding a small quantity of the urine to a graduated glass tube, filled one-third with mercury, completely filling the tube with sodic hypochlorite, and immersing it in an inverted position in a concentrated solution of sodic chloride, in which position it is allowed to remain for several hours, after which the quantity of gas (nitrogen) evolved is read off: 1.549 cubic inches of nitrogen at 60° F. 1 grain of urea.

Uric acid is best determined by adding to about 200 e. c. of the urine 10 e. c. of hydrochloric acid, and allowing the mixture to stand for two days, when the precipitate formed is collected on a small filter, washed, dried, and weighed. Care should be taken not to use more than about 30 e. e. of water in washing the precipitate, as otherwise a partial solution of the uric acid is to be feared; and all albumen present should at first be removed by coagulation with dilute acetic acid, in which case this acid, in a concen

trated form, should be employed as the precipitant of the uric acid.

Sugar (glucose) is estimated by its reducing action on a boiling cupric solution in presence of an alkali, or it can also be determined by adding a small quantity of yeast to the urine, and measuring the amount of carbonic acid formed by the fermentation of the sugar. (See URINOMETER.) Albumen is separated by heating the urine to boiling, and adding a few drops of acetic acid until complete coagulation takes place. The precipitate is dried until its weight remains constant. Chlorides may be estimated by a volumetric method (as with silver and potassic dichromate solutions); phosphates by the uranic oxide process; ammonia by placing 20 c. c. of the urine in a shallow dish, over which is placed a similar vessel containing 10 c. c. of a standard solution of sulphuric acid, both being covered by an air-tight bell-jar; 10 c. c. of milk of lime are then added to the urine, and the bell-jar is placed over it. two days the ammonia will have been absorbed by the acid, and is estimated by titrating and comparing the residual acidity with that of the standard acid. (See VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS.) J. P. BATTERSHALL.

In

Urine, Retention of. See RETENTION OF URINE, by E. J. BERMINGHAM, M. D.

Urinom'eter [Gr. oupov, "urine," and μérpov, 66 measure"], an instrument used in the determination of the specific gravity of URINE (which see), by means of which the presence of albumen or other foreign matters is often indicated. Quite recently a method for estimating quantitatively the amount of grape-sugar present in urine by the loss of density which is caused by the fermentation of the same has been proposed. It is executed as follows: Determine the specific gravity of the urine; add a little dry yeast; allow the mixture to remain at rest for twenty-four hours, and then take the specific gravity again. A urinometer can be used, each degree of which corresponds to 1 grain of grape-sugar in 1 fluid ounce of urine.

J. P. BATTERSHALL.

Uropelt'ida [from Uropeltis-ovpá, “tail," and wéλTMŋ, "shield"-the chief genus], a family of reptiles of the order Ophidia. The body is cylindrical, the head short and pointed, and not separated by constriction from the body; the eyes are very small; the cleft of the mouth is comparatively narrow; teeth are in both jaws, but none on the palate; there are no rudiments of posterior extremities; the tail is short and blunt, and has a naked terminal shield or keeled scales; the skull has the cranial walls partly constituted by the mastoids; ectopterygoids and prefrontals are developed; the maxillaries are horizontal, and in contact with the prefrontals, and have alveolar ridges. The family is composed of several genera, mostly confined to the East Indies and the Philippine Islands. A monograph was published in 1861 by Dr. Peters (De Serpentium Familia Cropeltaceorum, Berlin). THEODORE GILL.

Ur'quhart (DAVID), b. at Bracklanwell, co. Cromarty, Scotland, in 1805; educated at St. John's College, Oxford; entered the diplomatic service; travelled extensively in the East; was secretary of legation at Constantinople 1835-36; resigned that post in consequence of his opposition to Lord Palmerston's Eastern policy, which he denounced as subservient to the ambitious views of Russia; made a vigorous warfare upon that policy in the press for several years, and continued it in Parliament, where he sat as a Conser

vative member for Stafford 1847-52. Author of Turkey and its Resources (1833), England, France, Russia, and Turkey (1835), The Spirit of the East, a Journal of Travels through Roumeli (2 vols., 1838), Diplomatic Transactions in Central Asia (1840), The Mystery of the Danube (1844), The Pillars of Hercules, a Narrative of Travels in Spain and Morocco (2 vols., 1850), The Progress of Russia in the West, North, and South (1853), Letters and Essays on Russian Aggressions (1853), Recent Events in the East (1854), The War of Ignorance, its Progress and Results (1854), The Lebanon, a History and a Diary (2 vols., 1860), and other works and pamphlets, some of them directed against the C. S. in reference to boundary difficulties and the annexation of Texas.

Urquiʼza, de (JUSTO JOSÉ), b. in the province of Entre Rios, viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, in 1800, of mixed Spanish and Indian blood; rose into prominence as a leader of the Guachos or half-nomadic herdsmen in the frequent revolutions which followed the independence of the Argentine Confederation; attached himself to the federal" party as represented by the dictator Rosas, by whom he was favored and promoted to be a general of division; became governor of his native province 1842; commanded the Argentine forces in Uruguay 1843-45, and gained over Rivera, at India Muerta, Mar. 28, 1845, an important victory, which he stained by numerous executions of prisoners; found himself in 1851 an object of jealousy and

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suspicion to Rosas, against whom, in self-defence, he revolted; terminated the nine-years' siege of Montevideo by the capitulation of the besiegers; made a treaty of alliance with Brazil and Uruguay; crossed the Parana Jan., 1852; defeated Rosas at the decisive battle of Monte Caseros, forcing him to flee to Europe; was recognized at Buenos Ayres as provisional dictator; called a congress at Santa Fé to form a constitution; was forced to retire from Buenos Ayres by the revolution of Sept. 11, which established the independence of that province from the confederation; was chosen president for six years 1854-60; established his capital at Bajada del Paraná; declared the Paraná, Uruguay, and La Plata rivers free to the flags of all nations; carried on alternate warfare and diplomatic negotiations with the semiindependent province of Buenos Ayres, which he ultimately added to the confederation by the treaty of Nov. 11, 1859, as the result of a victory gained at Cepeda; was appointed commander-in-chief on the expiration of his presidential term 1860, and shortly after elected governor of Entre Rios; was defeated by Mitre, the governor of Buenos Ayres, at the battle of Pavon, Sept. 17, 1861-an event which led to the reorganization of the "Argentine Republic" retired from the governorship of Entre Rios 1864, and took little subsequent part in political affairs. He was assassinated at his country-seat of San José, Entre Rios, in May, 1870, by his son-in-law, Gen. Lopez Jordan, who headed a revolution. He possessed immense wealth in lands, cattle, and horses, lived in baronial style at his estancia, and had little education, but considerable political sagacity and strong passions. PORTER C. BLISS.

Urra'ca, queen of Castile, b. about 1070, was the only legitimate child of Alfonso VI. by his queen, Constance of Burgundy; married, about 1090, Raymond of Burgundy, count of Galicia, who d. in 1108; married Alfonso I. the Warrior of Aragon 1109; succeeded to the throne the same year; was imprisoned by her husband, and rescued by her lover, the count of Lora, 1110; was repudiated by Alfonso and their marriage declared null by the papal legate 1111; was defeated and retired into Galicia 1111; raised there a new army, with which she seized Burgos, and held an assembly there 1113; drove Alfonso back into Aragon; associated her son, Alfonso Raymond, in the government, but quarrelled and made war upon him 1116; made war also upon her half-sister Theresa, countess of Portugal, and ravaged Portugal 1121. D. at Leon Mar. 8, 1126, not much lamented by any body.

Ur'sa Ma'jor [Lat., "Greater Bear"], the first of Ptolemy's northern constellations, including the fine group of seven stars known as "Charles's Wain," "The Dipper," or the "Butcher's Cleaver," near the N. pole, formerly called also Septentriones (likewise Septemptriones) and the Plough."

Ur'sa Mi'nor [Lat., "Lesser Bear"], one of Ptolemy's northern constellations, containing the North Star (Polaris) and the group anciently known as Cynosura, the "Dog's Tail." Polaris is a double star of the third magnitude.

Urs'ida [from Ursus, the ancient Latin name of the bear, the typical genus], a family of placentiferous mammals of the order Feræ, embracing all the species of bears. These have the body heavy, the hair abundant, the head conic, and with the snout short, but more or less pointed, the feet plantigrade (i. e. with the palms and soles applied to the ground in walking or resting), and each with five digits fully developed and armed with sharp non-retractile claws; the teeth in adult 36 to 42 (M. 3, P. M. (3), C. 4, I. 3 (3) × 2); last true molar of the upper jaw is oblong and exceeds the first; the last premolar of the upper jaw, as well as the succeeding true molars, is tubercular; the first true molar in the lower jaw is narrow, but longest; the second oblong and broader; the skull is distinguished by its foramina, the foramen lacerum posticum being introrse and behind the postero-internal angle of the tympanic bone, and the carotid canal is little in advance of the foramen lacerum posticum. The family is widely distributed, and has representatives in the extreme arctic regions as well as in the temperate and torrid zones-in America, Europe, and Asia, and in the N. of Africa. About 15 species are known, which have been distributed by recent systematists under six genera-viz. Thalaretos (polar bear), Ursus (ordinary bears), Tremarctos (South American), Helarctos (Indian, etc.), Melursus (the Ursus labiatus of India), and Eluropoda (Thibetan): the last two are very distinct; the others closely related. North America has one species of Thalarctos (T. maritimus), and two or three of Ursus (U, horribilis, U. americanus, and perhaps U. Richardsonii or U. arctos). (As to habits, etc., and for figures, see the article BEAR.) THEODORE GILL.

Ursula, SAINT. See URSULINES.