TURNING-TURPENTINE. Turning. See LATHE, by PROF. R. H. THURSTON, C. E. Turnip [0. Eng. turnep], a biennial plant, abundant throughout the temperate zone, having a swollen fleshy root of great value as food both for man and more especially for cattle. It is of the same genus (Brassica) as MUSTARD and of the same species (B. campestris) as RAPE (which see), is found growing wild as a weed in Europe and Northern Asia, and is largely cultivated both as a field and as a garden crop, sometimes reaching twenty or twentyfive pounds. The most valuable kinds are the Swedish or Russian turnips, usually called ruta-bagas, of which there are numerous varieties. Turnips, when grown in gardens, must be sown early in spongy soil; when raised in the field, they are sown much later, and thrive best in moist cloudy weather. Though turnip-culture is of comparatively recent origin in England, it has already taken rank there as the most important field-crop, being fed to sheep in the fields, enclosed within hurdles or movable fences. Though an agreeable article of diet for man, it has never assumed great importance in that respect, owing to the enormous proportion of water, 87 to 92 per cent., in its composition. The leading varieties are in England, the white Dutch, white French, sweet German, and Teltow; in the U. S., the improved American and Carter's and Laing's rutabagas. Turnip-Fly, a name common to several insects destructive to turnips. The most common is the small chrysomelian beetle called also turnip-flea (Altica or Haltica nemorum), from its prodigious leaping powers, a species having an oval body and wide head, long and strong hind legs, large black wings with two yellowish stripes, and claws notched and hooked to enable it to keep firm hold of the cruciferous vegetables which constitute its food. It eats the leaves of the turnip as soon as they appear above ground in the spring, and lays its eggs on the under side of the leaves later in the season. The larvæ thus bred upon the plant are often extremely destructive to the turnip-root, in which they burrow. Other species are the H. striolata, or wavy-striped flea-beetle of the U. S., the Pontia oleracea, potherb or white butterfly, and the Anthyomia radicum, a dipterous insect of the family Muscidæ, of the same genus as the cabbage-fly and the beet-fly, and especially abundant and noxious in Great Britain, where the latter is considered as the turnip-fly proper. Turn'pike, in law, differs from a common public highway in the fact that it is always constructed and maintained by a board of managers or trustees, or by a corporation acting under some special statutory authority, and also in the fact that tolls are almost always imposed upon the travellers to enable the trustees or corporation to pay the cost of construction and maintenance and to receive a profit upon their investments. In England the previous special statutes were consolidated by the general acts of 13 Geo. III. ch. 64, and 24 Geo. III. ch. 9, and all existing and future turnpikes were brought under the same system of regulations. In the U. S. turnpikes are constructed and maintained by corporations created either under general statutes or by special charters. Although there is a great diversity in the details of the legislation in different States, yet all these corporations are authorized to take lands for their own uses upon payment of compensation to the owners thereof, to appropriate existing highways, and to exercise the same rights of eminent domain under similar restrictions that are held by and imposed upon railroad companies. They are also empowered to lay and collect tolls from travellers, the rates of toll and the number or distances of the gates being frequently determined by the charter itself. As this is the most important of all the franchises granted by the State, its enjoyment is carefully protected, and its use is strictly guarded by penalties enforceable, as the case may be, either against private persons or against the corporations. As concerns its use, a turnpike is in every respect a public highway, free to all upon the sole condition that the legal tolls are paid; as a consequence thereof, the rules of law concerning encroachment upon highways are equally applicable to turnpikes. In return for the franchises conferred by the legislature, the corporations are required to keep the road-bed and all its appurtenances in good repair, in the condition and form prescribed by the statute, so long at least as they do not surrender their franchises by ceasing to demand payment of tolls. fail in this duty, they may be made liable in actions for damages brought by persons injured through their neglect, to actions for penalties, to indictment, and to an annulment of their charter at the suit of the people. The plank roads, which have been so common in certain States, are simply a species of turnpikes, required by their charters to be constructed of a particular material. J. NORTON POMEROY. Turnsol, another name for LITMUS (which see). See also ARCHIL. If they 141 Turn'spit, a dog employed for turning the spit upon which meat is roasted. Formerly, the turnspit was almost universally employed in the kitchens of the European gentry and many peasants; but at present, though not quite unknown, it is mostly superseded by less rude appliances. The turnspit is a very intelligent dog, with a long body, short and often crooked legs, long and pendent ears, and a very large head. It has a dash of greyhound blood. Two or more dogs are kept, and relieve each other at the task. The dog stands in a kind of treadmill, his weight giving motion to the spit. Turn'stone [so called from its habit of overturning stones in search of food], the Strepsilas interpres, a wading bird of the family Hæmatopodidae, allied to the plovers, and common on the shores of the U. S. and in nearly all parts of the world. On our Pacific coast is found S. melanopus, the black turnstone. Tur'pentine [Lat. terebinthina; Ger. Terpentin; Fr. terebenthene; It. and Span. trementina], a term applied to certain vegetable oleo-resins which exude from coniferous trees, also to the resin obtained from the Pistacia terebinthus. They are obtained by making an excavation, having a capacity of about three pints, in the trunk of the tree, in which the exuded juice accumulates; which is collected, washed with warm water, and purified by straining through straw filters. The several varieties of turpentine are viscid solutions of resin in a volatile oil. American turpentine is chiefly procured from the Pinus palustris and the Pinus tada, the principal supply coming from North Carolina and the south-eastern part of Virginia; but recently indications have been given that Georgia and Florida will, in the near future, furnish large amounts of this valuable product. French and German turpentines greatly resemble the American in most of their properties. Venice turpentine, which is obtained from the Tarax europea, is a ropy, slightly greenish liquid, having a rather unpleasant odor and taste. Canada turpentine (Canada balsam; see BALSAM) is produced from the Abies balsamea growing in Canada and the northern part of Maine. The remaining varieties of turpentine are the Strasbourg, the Hungarian, and the Chian, which differ somewhat in their properties, but are in most respects very similar compounds. The turpentines, as a class, form yellowish viscid liquids, possessing a strong aromatic odor, and a bitter, pungent taste, and are very inflammable. They consist of a volatile oil (or oils) and colophony (rosin). Upon distilling the crude product with water, the volatile oil is separated, a brittle residue of rosin remaining. Oil of turpentine (spirits of turpentine), (C10H16), is obtained by the distillation of crude turpentine, each variety of the crude product furnishing a distinct volatile oil. They all form colorless, mobile liquids of a peculiar disagreeable odor, are insoluble in water, but dissolve in alcohol, in ether, and in bisulphide of carbon. The oils of turpentine are solvents of many resins and oils, of caoutchoue, and of iodine, sulphur, and phosphorus. The chief differences exhibited by the various varieties are in specific gravity, boiling-point, and optical rotatory power. The ordinary turpentine oil of commerce has a sp. gr. of 0.864 and a boiling point of 320° F. French oil of turpentine consists essentially of a hydrocarbon termed terebenthene (C10H16), of sp. gr. .8767 at zero Centigrade, at 321° F. Riban). Australene is an analogous hydrocarbon obtained from the American oil. The oils of turpentine, on standing, slowly absorb oxygen, a portion of which is converted into ozone. Chlorine, bromine, and iodine are dissolved by them, disengagement of heat and combustion often occurring. Under the influence of heat and of acids turpentine oils assume various isomeric states; when heated to 464° F., isoterebenethene and metaterebenethene are formed; by the action of sulphuric acid, terebene and colophene are produced. Two other isomeres, camphilene and terebilene, have been prepared by treating artificial camphor with quicklime. Artificial camphors are the results of the combination of hydrochloric acid with oil of turpentine; so far, two hydrochlorates, C10H16.HC and Co16.2HCl, having been obtained. The former, which is termed hydrochlorate of camphene, crystallizes in white prisms, which have an aromatic smell and taste, greatly resembling that of ordinary camphor: the latter compound possesses the characteristic odor of the oil of thyme. (See THYME, OIL OF.) A numerous variety of seeds and fruits yield by distillation oils isomeric or polymeric with those of turpentine; these have received the generic name of camphenes or terebenes. Turpentine is sometimes applied externally in medicine in the shape of salves and plasters; it is also taken internally in the form of pills. The oils of turpentine are extensively used in the preparation of varnishes, and to some extent in medicine as stimulants, diuretics, and anthelminties. J. P. BATTERSHALL. Tur'peth, or Turbith, a medicinal cathartic root from India and Australia, Ipomea turpethum. Spirgatis found in it a substance he called turphethine, C34H56016, a yellowish resin, which possessed purgative properties. It seems to be a glucoside. H. WURTZ. Turpeth-Mineral, also Turbith-Mineral, an ancient name of what is now known as the basic sulphate of mercuric oxide, O6SHgs. It is obtained by boiling with water the neutral mercuric sulphate, 04SHg. It is a lemonyellow powder, which is very slightly soluble in cold water. It was formerly used in medicine. Notwithstanding its name, it is not a mineral substance, but is wholly artificial in its origin. H. WURTZ. Turpin', or Tylpinus, archbishop of Rheims (d. Sept. 2, 800), was the reputed author of a Latin chronicle relating the campaigns of Charlemagne against the Saracens in Spain. The book was declared authentic by Pope Calixtus II. in 1122, translated into French in 1206, printed in 1566 in Frankfort, and lately edited by Ciampi (Florence, 1822) and Reiffenberg (Brussels, 1836). The first part of the book was evidently written simply in order to encourage pilgrimages to St. Jago di Compostella, and the rest bears the character of a romance written principally for the purpose of entertainment. Many interior features indicate that the work was produced in the twelfth century, perhaps by Pope Calixtus II. himself. (See Ciampi, De Vita Caroli Magni et Rolandi Historia, J. Turpino vulgo tributo (Florence, 1822), and Gascon Paris, De Pseudo Turpino (Paris, 1865).) Turquoise. See PRECIOUS STONES, by PROF. H. B. CORNWALL, E. M. Türr (STEPHEN), b. at Baja, Hungary, in 1825, was a lieutenant in the Austrian army and stationed in Italy in 1849, when the revolutionary government of Hungary called upon all Hungarians serving under the Austrian flag in Italy to desert to the Piedmontese. He was appointed a colonel in the Hungarian legion in the service of Sardinia, and after the disaster at Novara he led the legion to Baden. The revolution in Baden having been suppressed, he lived for several years in retirement in Switzerland. In the Crimean war, however, he served as a volunteer in the British army. While on business in that capacity, and wearing the English uniform, he was arrested at Bucharest by the Austrians, placed before a court-martial as a deserter, tried, and condemned to death. Only the most urgent interference of the English and French governments saved his life, the verdict of death being commuted into one of perpetual banishment. He afterward served with great distinction as aid-de-camp to Garibaldi, and exercised a considerable influence on the development of affairs by his coolness and moderation. In 1861 he was made a general of division in the Sardinian army, and in the same year he married the princess Bonaparte, a cousin of Napoleon III. In the Franco-Prussian and Turko-Russian wars he took no active part, though in the former he showed himself very friendly to France, and in the latter very hostile to Russia. He has published Arrestation, Procès, et Condamnation du Général Türr (1863) and The House of Austria and Hungary (1865). Turrecremata. See TORQUEMADA. çois de Pierre (Lyons, 1728), who urged that the Reformed churches, with such an explanation, had no further reason for remaining outside the Roman Church. (See E. de Budé, François et Alphonse Turretini, Lausanne, 1880, 2 vols.) Turret-Ships. See SHIPS OF WAR. Turrets, Revolving Metallic. The iron turrettower, or revolving battery, has, since the late civil war, become a recognized element in land and naval warfare. A patent was issued to Theodore R. Timby, of New York, in 1843, for "a revolving metallic tower, and for a revolving tower for a floating battery to be propelled by steam." This wholly original idea of a revolving battery found its earliest practical expression in the turrets of the monitors (see MONITOR, Class of Armored Vessels, and SHIPS, Ironclads), for each one of which built by the U. S. government the inventor received a royalty. The great military value of the revolving battery once fully demonstrated by the crucial test of war, it was soon adopted by other nations, not only for naval purposes, but also for defensive works on land. "Revolving turrets," observes a high English authority, "if of adequate strength, are the best of all methods of protecting ordnance for coast-defence. They combine the security given by shields with more than the lateral range afforded by the barbette system, and the FIG. 1. The Gruson Turret. ease with which they can be turned gives special facilities for firing at moving objects, or for screening the gun-ports from an enemy's fire while loading the guns. The gunners are fully protected." The "Gruson" turret (see Fig. 1) has the ellipsoidal form in order to deflect a shot striking it. The turret is cast in separate pieces, which when put together are mutually supporting. They are comparatively cheap. Germany, Russia, Holland, Italy, Austria, and Belgium have adopted this type of defensive works. A two-gun turret is generally considered as equivalent to an open battery of six or eight guns. FIG. 2. Turretin', or Turretini (FRANÇOIS), b. at Geneva Oct. 17, 1623; studied theology in his native city, in Holland, and in France under Spanheim, Morus, and Diodati; was appointed pastor at Geneva in 1647; removed to Leyden in 1650: returned to Geneva as professor of theology The Dover Turret (England).-The Dover turret (Fig. in 1653. Died there Sept. 28, 1687. His principal work 2), placed on the outer end of the pier at Dover, England, is Institutio Theologia Elenctice (1679-85). His com- consists, first, of a live ring and rollers of steel running on plete works were published in 4 vols., 1688.-His son, JEAN a path of steel laid on a massive cylinder of masonry. On ALPHONSE TURRETIN, b. at Geneva Aug. 13, 1671; studied this live ring runs an iron framework weighing about 240 theology; visited Holland, England, and France, and was tons. The framework contains the gun-chamber, which is appointed professor of ecclesiastical history in 1697 at protected by three thicknesses of 7-inch armor, with two Geneva, where he d. May 1, 1737. His complete works intermediate thicknesses of 2-inch plates and 6 inches of were published in 5 vols. in 1775, and contain Pyrrhonismus wood, weighing together about 460 tons. The weight of Pontificius, against Bossuet's Histoire des Variations, His- guns, carriages, and slides, added to the above, makes a toria Ecclesiastica Compendium ad annum 1700, etc. In total running weight of about 895 tons. This will throw his theology he tried to mitigate and modify the severe Cal- upon each of the thirty-two rollers of the live ring a presvinism, and practically he exerted himself much in order sure due to about 28 tons. The outside diameter of turret to promote a union between the Lutheran and the Re- is 37 feet; inside, 32 feet: interior height of gun-chamber, formed churches. It was mainly due to him that the rule 8 feet 8 inches; height of turret-armor, 9 feet; armament, requiring every German pastor to subscribe to the Helvetian two 80-ton guns. The turret is turned by a pinion, the consensus was withdrawn; and when Frederick I. of Prus- vertical shaft shown, working into a large ring, with steel sia asked the opinion of the German ministry concerning trundles secured to the framework, the power being given the union, it was Turretin who drew up the answer which by a set of main engines capable of working up to 300 makes a happy distinction between fundamental and non-horse-power, and auxiliary engines of 45 or 50 horse-power. fundamental differences, reducing the differences between the two great Protestant churches to the latter kind. See his A Discourse concerning the Fundamental Articles in Religion, which appeared in an English translation (London, 1720). The work was attacked by the Jesuit Fran All engines and boilers are in the lower part of the battery, about 30 feet below the guns. The magazines are nearly at the same level as the engines. The U. S. military authorities are fully alive to the value of turrets for defensive work, as the following estimates of ing unfluted columns and no triglyphs. It seems, however, to have been Etruscan rather than Roman, and remains at Axia and other points seem to show that it was a rude attempt at the Doric style. The temple of Jupiter in the Capitol at Rome was of the Tuscan order. The general effect is low and heavy. A, A. exterior and interior walls of the tower, with dome-shaped roof K revolving by the gearing F upon the friction rollers G, G; C. C, artillery platforms, with guns mounted upon their carriages, which radiate from the common centre; B, the central turret, revolving, independently of the tower, upon the shaft b, b by means of the rod and gearing D; on the left of the shaft is seen the circuit-closer, forming the connection between the galvanic battery and the conducting chains passing to each gun; E, E, E, ventilators; H, H, casemates, with guns, independent of the revolving tower; I, I, walls of subterraneous foundation for the tower, forming chambers for stores and munitions. ameter with two gun-platforms carrying thirty heavy guns each, equivalent to an ordinary fort of about 240 guns. In the annexed cut, the tower, in which the guns are placed, revolves independently of the central turret, which has a motion of its own. In the top of the turret, which corresponds to the pilot-house of the monitors, the commanding officer has a theodolite, or sight-bar, pivoted in the axis of the turret. By this means he may, through sight-holes in the turret, train on a distant object, as an enemy's ship. As the axes of the guns are placed coincident with the radii of the circle which has its centre in the centre of the turret, each gun may be fired, by means of a "circuitcloser," as the revolutions of the tower bring it in the line of fire, as shown by the sight-bar. The elevation due to the distance of the object having been once ascertained, the pointing of the guns from the turret must be theoretically correct as long as the object is fixed. The sight-bar may be kept on a moving object by revolving the turret, and the elevation adjusted from time to time as may be necessary. Two such towers advantageously placed, one on each side of a channel-way, and connected by heavy chain cables supplemented by submarine mines and torpedoes, would render the water approaches to a harbor absolutely impassable to any fleet the world has yet produced. S. B. LUCE. Turtle. See CHELONIA. Tur'tle, or Turtle-Dove, a name applied to several small pigeons, especially those of the genus Turtur. The T. auritus, or common European turtle, is a migratory bird, famed for its gentleness, its strong conjugal affection, and its loud but soft cooing note. The turtle or mourning dove of the U. S. is the Zenaidura carolinensis, whose gentle and mournful note is well known. It is thirteen inches in total length, and has a remarkably long tail. Pigeons of the genus Ena are also reckoned as turtles. There are perhaps twenty different species of turtle-dove. That mentioned in the Bible is doubtless Turtur risorius, an abundant Eastern species often kept in cages. Tuscaloosa, city, cap. of Tuscaloosa co., Ala. (see map of Alabama, ref. 4-B, for location of county), at the head of navigation on Warrior River, and upon the Alabama and Great Southern R. R., contains Alabama University. Tuscaloosa Female College, Alabama Central Female College, Ursuline convent, the State insane asylum, cotton and woollen factory located in the suburbs, foundry, a tannery, and shoe manufactory. P. in 1870, 1689; in 1880, 2418. JOHN F. WARREN, ED. "TIMES." Tuscan Order of Architecture is generally regarded as a Roman simplification of the Doric style, hav Tus'cany, formerly an independent grand duchy of Italy, was between the duchies of Parma and Modena, the Papal States, and the Tyrrhenian Sea, and comprised an area of 8586 sq. m., with 1,801,875 inhabitants. Its territory corresponded nearly to that of the ancient Etruria, and after the fall of the Roman empire it formed at first part of the kingdom of the Goths, then of the kingdom of the Longobards, and then of the empire of Charlemagne. He gave it a somewhat more independent position, erecting it unto a marquisate, and giving it away as a military fief. Guelph VI. sold his fief in 1160 to the German emempire was somewhat loose from the very beginning, Tusperor Frederick I.; but as the connection with the German republics, of which Florence, Pisa, and Sienna were the cany was soon broken up into a number of independent most important. Florence conquered Pisa and the greatest part of the Tuscan territory, but was conquered itself in 1532 by Charles V., who appointed Alessandro de' Medici duke of Florence. In 1569, Cosmo I. united the whole of Tuscany into a grand duchy, and from that time and to 1737, when it became extinct, the Medici family ruled the country and made it one of the most prosperous and civilized in Europe. In 1737 it fell to Francis, duke of Lorraine, who had married Maria Theresa and became emperor of Germany, and with exception of a few years, during which Napoleon first made it a part of the kingdom of Etruria, and then annexed it to France, it was ruled by the house of Lorraine until Aug. 20, 1859, when by an almost unanimous vote of the people it annexed itself to the kingdom of Sardinia. Tuscaro'ra, Elko co., Nev. (see map of Nevada, ref. 2-E, for location of county). P. in 1880, 1364. Tuscaroras, one of the "Six Nations" of New York Indians, resided originally in the valleys of Tar and Neuse rivers in North Carolina. With the Pamlicoes they made war (1711-13) on the whites, were severely defeated, fled northward, and were formally received by their kindred, the Hodénosaune, or Five Nations, thenceforth called the Six Nations. In 1884 there were 419 Tuscaroras reported as living on the Tuscarora reservation, which is in the town of Lewiston, Niagara co., N. Y. They own 6249 acres in common, which they purchased with moneys paid them by the U. S. for land in North Carolina claimed by them. Tuscia. See ETRURIA. Tuscola, city and R. R. junction, cap. of Douglas co., Ill. (see map of Illinois, ref. 6-F, for location of county), on Chicago branch of Illinois Central R. R. P. of tp. in 1870, 2863; in 1880, 2806, including 1457 in city. Tusculum. See FRASCATI. Tuscum'bia, city and R. R. junction, cap. of Colbert co., Ala. (see map of Alabama, ref. 1-B, for location of county), on Memphis and Charleston R. R., 150 miles E. of Memphis, Tenn., has a female institute, a male academy, flouring-mills, and a good water-supply. Principal business, cotton-handling. P. in 1870, 1214; in 1880, 1369. Tuscumbia, cap. of Miller co., Mo. (sce map of Missouri, ref. 5-G, for location of county), on Osage River, 35 miles S. W. of Jefferson City. P. in 1880, 157. Tuskegee, cap. of Macon co., Ala. (see map of Alabama, ref. 5-E, for location of county), 54 miles from Western R. R., with which it is connected by Tuskegee R. R., contains a flourishing female college, a normal school, an orphans' home of the synod of Alabama, etc. The soil is very rich and fertile, and a mild and salubrious climate makes it an attractive winter resort for tourists. P. in 1880, 2370. Tusket, p.-v., Yarmouth co., N. S., on Tusket River, 10 miles E. of Yarmouth. Shipbuilding is the leading interest. P. about 450. Tus'ser (THOMAS), b. at Rivenhall, Essex, England, about 1515; educated at Eton and at Cambridge. D. in London about Apr., 1580. Author of Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry, united to as many of Good Housewifery, etc. (1573), in verse, with a metrical autobiography. Tut'tle (CHARLES WESLEY), b. at Newfield, Me., Nov. 1, 1829; was assistant observer at the Cambridge Observatory 1850-54; discovered a telescopic comet 1853; was a member of the U. S. expedition to determine the difference of longitude between Greenwich and Cambridge 185455; studied law at the Cambridge law school, and was admitted to the Suffolk bar 1856; has contributed professional memoirs to the Astronomical Journal and to the Annals of Harvard Observatory, and historical articles to the Genealogical Register, and is author of a Life of Capt. John Mason, the founder of New Hampshire. Tuttle (DANIEL SYLVESTER), D. D., b. at Windham, Greene co., N. Y., Jan. 26, 1837; graduated at Columbia College in 1857; studied theology in the General Theological Seminary in New York; entered holy orders, and in 1866 was elected bishop of Montana, having jurisdiction in Idaho and Utah; was consecrated in 1867. Tut'tlingen, town of Germany, kingdom of Würtemberg, on the Danube, has several wool-spinning factories, tanneries, and manufactures of cloth, knives, nails, hosiery, and paper. P. 8022. Tutuila, one of the Samoan or Navigators' Islands, rises from 1200 to 2000 feet above the surface of the sea, is covered with luxuriant vegetation, and affords several excellent harbors, of which that of Pango-Pango, on the southern side, is the best. By an arrangement between the native chiefs and Com. Meade this harbor was offered to the U. S. as a coaling-station in 1872, and in the following year a special agent was sent by the American government to negotiate the extension of the protectorate over all the islands; but in 1875 a native king was elected, and the special American agent was made prime minister. Tux'pan, town of Mexico, state of Vera Cruz, on the river Tuxpan, 5 miles from its mouth in the Mexican Gulf, carries on an important trade in cedar logs. P. 5000. Tuxt'la, town of Mexico, state of Chiapas, carries on a lively trade in cacao and tobacco, and has about 5000 inhabitants. Tver, or Twer, government of European Russia, bounded S. by the government of Moscow, comprises an area of 25,223 sq. m.. with 1,644,600 inhabitants. F The ground is elevated, but the surface level, covered with forests, and dotted with small lakes; the Volga and several of its affluents rise here. The climate is somewhat severe, and the soil is not very fertile. Rye and oats are produced, sufficient for home consumption: flax and hemp are culti vated. Cattle are neither numerous nor good, but the fisheries are remunerative. Tver, or Twer, town of Russia, government of Tver, at the confluence of the Tvertsa and Volga, which latter here becomes navigable for steamers. The town contains an imperial palace, a cathedral, a college, various schools, and barracks, and, situated as it is on the highway from Moscow to St. Petersburg, its trade is considerable. Nails and cotton goods are extensively manufactured. There are several chalybeate springs in the vicinity. P. 38,246. Tweed, river of Scotland, rises at an elevation of 1500 feet above the sea, flows eastward, and enters the North Sea after a course of 96 miles. Tweed (WILLIAM MARCY), b. in New York City Apr. 3, 1823, of Scotch descent, and the son of a poor chairmaker; was put at work in his father's shop at an early age, where he remained with little schooling till he was twenty years old; when twenty-eight years old, went into partnership with his brother in the chairmaking business; in 1850 was elected alderman from the Seventh ward, serving two years; in 1853 was elected to Congress; was school commissioner of the Seventh ward 1857-59; in November of the same year he became a member of the board of supervisors of New York co., and was four times elected its president in 1863 became deputy street commissioner; in 1867 was elected State senator; was re-elected in 1869 and in 1871, but did not take his seat for the latter term; was for many years a member of the Tammany Society, of which he was chosen grand sachem in 1869, holding the office till 1871. His appointment as deputy street commissioner in 1863 may be said to date the foundation of the famous Tammany Ring, of which he was the chief spirit; he became at once the virtual head of the department of streets, afterward the department of public works, and by extending enormously the expenditures for public improvements acquired vast political influence and began to accumulate a fortune: his position as president of the board of supervisors enabled him to increase the city's pay-roll to unprecedented dimensions, giving sinecure positions to an army of political friends. The Ring gradually grew in power and influence till 1868, and at the opening of 1869 found itself master of nearly every department of the State government; Tweed's positions as president of the board of supervisors, head of the department of public works, State senator, and grand sachem of Tammany gave him unsurpassed political influence; every officer in the State, from the judge on the bench of the court of appeals down to the smallest official in New York City, was more or less under his sway and tainted by his corrupting touch; he openly boasted that he was worth $20,000,000. In 1868 the Ring's greatest scheme of robbery, the building of a new county courthouse, was planned; the work was begun under the stipulation that the cost should not exceed $250,000; before 1871 over $8,000,000 was pretended to have been expended on it, and it was still unfinished; it was not completed till long after: all of the contractors were forced to pay a commission of from 15 to 65 per cent. to the Ring, and to do this increased their bills accordingly; these bills were passed by the board of supervisors at Tweed's command, and were audited by Auditor Watson, Tweed's tool: in 1870 a new charter was passed by the legislature taking away the power of auditing from the board of supervisors and placing it in a board of audit composed of the mayor, the controller, the commissioner of parks, and the commissioner of public works-Hall, Connolly, Sweeney, and Tweed. Schemes of plunder were now organized on a grand scale. Several contractors for work on the new court-house were directed to make out claims against the county for all manner of imaginary services; these fraudulent bills, amounting to $6,000,000, were passed by the board of audit at its first and only meeting; of this amount, over $1,000,000 were traced to Tweed's private pocket. Instead of meeting again, the board illegally delegated the power of auditing to Auditor Watson, and signed the bills separately, without meeting as a board. Of the whole amount of money paid in this way, the Ring received 65 per cent.; Tweed's share was usually 25 per cent. secret account of the money thus paid was kept in the auditor's office under the title " County Liabilities." During the winter of 1870–71 a clerk employed in the auditor's office copied by stealth the items in this account and gave them to his patron, James O'Brien, an opponent of the Tammany Society. O'Brien subsequently gave the figures to the New York Times, and that journal published them in July, 1871. The excitement created thereby started a popular uprising which resulted in the complete overthrow of the Ring in the elections of Nov., 1871. On Feb. 10, 1872, Tweed was indicted by the grand jury for forgery and grand larceny, and his trial began on Jan. 6, and ended Jan. 31 in a disagreement of the jury; a second trial was begun on Nov. 5, 1873, and ended Nov. 19 in a verdict of guilty on every one of the fifty-one counts in the indictment; he was sentenced on Nov. 22 to twelve years' imprisonment in the penitentiary and to pay a fine of $12.300.18, one year for each of twelve counts in the indictment, and a fine of $250 each for thirty-nine other counts; he remained in the penitentiary on Blackwell's Island till June 16, 1875, when he was released by a decision of the court of appeals, on the ground that the power of the court which sentenced him was exhausted when one sentence was pronounced on one count of the indictment, A TWEEDDALE-TWILIGHT. and that the cumulative sentence was void. A new warrant was immediately issued against him on an old indictment of 1872, and when he was taken from the penitentiary on June 22 he went at once to court and gave bail to the amount of $18,000 on the criminal indictments, and went to Ludlow street jail in default of the $3,000,000 bail demanded in the civil suit which had been begun in the supreme court in Apr., 1875, for the recovery of $6,198,957.85, the amounts charged in the account called "County Liabilities." On Dec. 4, 1875, Tweed, while out riding with the sheriff, was allowed to visit his wife at her house in Madison avenue, and while there escaped from his custodians and fled to Spain, where he was captured and returned to the city Nov., 1876. On Jan. 13, 1876, proceedings were begun against him in the civil suit; a struck jury was obtained on Feb. 8, and on Mar. 8 the trial ended in a verdict for the damages amounting to $6,537,117.38, of which $4,719,940.35 was for principal and $1,817,117.03 was for interest. Tweed was married in 1844, and had eight children. D. in Ludlow Street Jail, N. Y., Apr. 12, 1878. J. B. BISHOP. Tweed'dale (GEORGE HAY), MARQUIS OF, b. Feb. 1, 1787; succeeded his father, the eighth marquis, in the peerage in 1804. During the Peninsular war he served as assistant quartermaster-general on the staff of the duke of Wellington, and was wounded at Vittoria and at Busaco. He also served in the war of 1812-15 between Great Britain and America, when again wounded. Was governor and commander-in-chief of Madras 1842-46. In 1875 he was made a field-marshal in the British army, and was colonel of the 2d Life Guards. In 1867 he was made a knight grand cross of the order of the Bath. The duchess of Wellington and Lady Peel are his daughters. D. Oct. 10, 1876. Tweeds, a loosely-spun and woven woollen cloth, made principally in Scotland and chiefly used for men's wear. It is not much fulled in the mill, and as a rule contains no shoddy. Cheviot and nearly all other grades of short and middle stapled wools are used in the manufacture. The dyeing is applied to the yarn. Twelfth, a a stop in the organ tuned a twelfth (or an octave and fifth) above the diapasons. Twelfth Day and Twelfth Night. See EPIPHANY. Twelve Tables, Law of. See LAW, THE CIVIL, by PROF. J. N. POMEROY, LL.D. Twes'ten (AUGUST DETLEV CHRISTIAN), D. D., b. in Glückstadt Apr. 11, 1789; studied at Kiel and Berlin; professor of philosophy and theology at Kiel from 1814; called to Berlin in 1835 to fill the theological chair of the great Schleiermacher, which position he occupied till his death, Jan. 8, 1876, retaining his vigor and faithfully attending to his academic duties to the last. The students called him "the disciple that dieth not." He was also member of the Oberkirchenrath of the Evangelical Church of Prussia from 1850 till 1874. He was a pupil and admirer of Schleiermacher, but more positive and orthodox; as a teacher and writer he was remarkably clear and accu rate. He wrote Lectures on Christian Dogmatics (vol. i. 1926: vol. ii. 1837, unfinished), Logik (1825), Matthias Flacius (1844), and an introduction to Schleiermacher's Ethik, which he edited (1841). PHILIP SCHAFF. Twesten (KARL), son of AUGUST D. C., b. at Kiel Apr. 22, 1820; studied jurisprudence at Berlin and Heidelberg; made a career in the civil service of the Prussian government; became noted in politics as founder of the national liberal party. D. at Berlin Oct. 14, 1870. He wrote Schiller in seinem Verhältnisse zur Wissenschaft (1863), Machiavelli (1868), and Die religiösen, politischen und socialen Ideen der asiatischen Culturvölker und der Aegypter in ihrer historischen Entwickelung, published after his death (1873). Twick'enham, town of England, county of Middlesex, on the Thames, opposite Richmond, has powder and oil mills, and contains many fine villas and summer residences. It was the home of Pope, who is still remembered there by his grotto and a monument in the parish church. Among the other curiosities of the place are the Orléans House, where Louis Philippe lived while a refugee in England, and Strawberry Hill, the seat of Walpole. Twickenham is connected with Richmond by a very handsome bridge. P. 12,479. Twiggs (DAVID EMANUEL), b. in Richmond co., Ga., 1790: was appointed captain in the 8th Infantry in 1812, major 28th Infantry Sept. 21, 1814, and served throughout the war with Great Britain; was retained in the peace organization of the army in 1815 as captain 7th Infantry, 1st Infantry 1822, major May 14, 1825, lieutenant-colonel 4th Infantry 1831, colonel 2d Dragoons June, 1836. In the war with Mexico he served in command of the right wing of the army under Gen. Taylor at Palo Alto and VOL. VIII-10 145 Resaca de la Palma; was promoted to brigadier-general June 30, 1846; was brevetted major-general for gallantry at Monterey, and Congress presented him with a sword. Transferred to Gen. Scott's army, he commanded a brigade before Vera Cruz, and during subsequent operations resulting in the capture of the City of Mexico was in command of the 2d division of regulars; military governor of Vera Cruz 1848. In Feb., 1861, being in command of the department of Texas, he surrendered his army to Gen. MeCulloch of the Confederate service, together with all the government stores, munitions, and material to the value of $1,500,000, for which he was dismissed from the service of the U. S. Mar. 1; he was soon after appointed a majorgeneral in the Confederate army, and commanded for a while at New Orleans. Retiring to his estate upon the Mississippi, he removed thence to Georgia upon the approach of the U. S. forces. D. at Augusta, Ga., Sept. 15, 1862. Twi'light [Sax. tweoleoht; Ger. Zwielicht], the light which by its increasing brightness foretokens the rising of the sun in the morning, and which lingers after sunset, becoming fainter and fainter until it disappears as veritable night comes on. The morning twilight in the Latin is distinguished by the term aurora, while the evening twilight is called crepusculum-terms which, with the usual modification, are retained in the French. But the cause is in both cases the same, and the explanation is perfect which refers twilight to the reflection and refraction of the sun's light by that portion of the atmosphere which is still illuminated by the sun's rays after he has set to us, or a similar portion on which he shines before he rises to us in the morning. Thus, let S T P (in Fig. 1) represent the upper portion of a nearly lenticular section of the atmosphere which is illuminated by the sun's rays in the evening after he has set to an observer at 1 or 2, etc., or L. Then the direction of the rays from S toward T will be somewhat bent from the perpendicular ST as the light passes from the low and dense to the upper and rarer portions of the atmosphere. This light is moreover reflected wherever notable variety of density is found among the various atmospheric strata. And thus (bent a little downward by refraction) the reflected light reaches the observers stationed respectively at 1, 2, etc., until at last it is only the light from the mere edge of the lenticular illuminated portion SPT, and that in the high region at T, that reaches the observer at L. Vapor in solution or partially condensed may sometimes aid the reflection of the light. All this will require that twilight immediately after sunset should be comparatively very bright and broadly extensive along the horizon, as the light then, on the hypothesis here dis FIG. 1. T cussed, will come from the broad and dense part of the lenticular segment STP. Afterward the twilight ought rapidly to fade and appear narrower, until at length a mere faint line of light be left visible along the horizon. Before sunrise the same varieties must occur, but in inverse order. All this is precisely consonant with fact. The explanation, therefore, as heretofore intimated, is perfect. The theoretical explanation of twilight is then consistent in its circumstances with fact: one of these circumstances should, however, be more completely exhibited. As, on the one side, the angle of incidence with the plumb-line extended to T is equal to the angle of reflection on the other side, and the reflected ray from these proceeding downward through the atmosphere becomes thus the inversion of the incident ray in its whole course upward, the symmetry thus introduced will require that the reflected ray when it reaches the surface at L should be a tangent to the surface there, and so at right angles to the plumb-line there, the earth being supposed to be a perfect sphere-a supposition quite sufficiently near to accuracy for our purpose. All this, moreover, will indicate that we shall have two equal right-angled triangles extending to the centre of the earth, with their right angles at S and L respectively. And so the plumb-line extended from the centre to T will bisect the are S L. Limit of Twilight.-This is usually stated at 18°, twilight beginning in the morning and ending in the evening when the sun is 18° below the horizon. In tropical regions the limit is less than this, and in the latitude of mid-Europe has sometimes been found to be greater. The limit, of course, varies withal in consequence of the clearness of the atmosphere or otherwise. Now, when the sun (as we ordinarily say) is sunk below the horizon (as at L) to the twilight limit, then the horizon at L cuts the celestial |