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into the ocean. The most remarkable is Cape Blanco, discovered by the Spanish navigator Aguilar in 1803, and named by Vancouver in 1792 Cape Orford; it lies nearly under the 43d parallel, and is the extremity of a line of highlands which separates the valley of the Umqua, on the north, from the Klamet, on the south. The only island between Cape Flattery and Cape Mendocino, which has been thought worthy of a name, is one close to the continent, near the latitude of 47 degrees, called by the Spaniards Isla de Dolores, or Isle of Grief, in commemoration of the murder of some of their men on the contiguous main land; it afterwards received the appellation of Destruction Island, from a similar loss there sustained by a British vessel in 1787.

XII. The territory drained by the Columbia presents a constant succession of mountain-ridges and valleys, or plains of small extent. The principal ridges are two in number, besides the Rocky Mountains, running nearly parallel to each other and to the coasts; and the country is thus divided into three great regions, which differ materially in climate, soil, and productive powers. The first region, or low country, is that between the coast and the chain of mountains nearest to the sea; the second region is between the mountains nearest the sea and the middle ridge, called the Blue Mountains; and the third region, or high country, is between the Blue Mountains and the Rocky Mountains. All these divisions are crossed by the Columbia, the main stream of which is formed in the middle region, by the union of several branches flowing from the Rocky Mountains, and receiving in their course supplies from innumerable smaller tributaries draining the intermediate countries.

The chain of mountains running nearest the Pacific, southward from the Strait of Fuca, has received many names, no one of which appears to have been generally adopted. It is called the California Mountains; the Klamet Mountains, from the Indian nation which occupies a part of the territory on its western side; and the Cascade Mountains, from the cascades or cataracts formed by the Columbia, in passing through the ridge. Mr. Kelly, a patriotic American citizen, has proposed to call it the President Range, and has accordingly assigned to the seven highest peaks, respectively, the names of the Chief Magistrates of the United States, from Washington to Jackson, in succession. These mountains are of considerable elevation, and many of their summits are visible from a great distance at sea, especially the most northern, called Mount Olympus, near Cape Flattery. Mr. Wyeth speaks thus rapturously of the view of them from the top of one of the Blue Mountains: "The traveller going west, sees the high points of the California Mountains, about one hundred and sixty miles distant, some of which rise about sixteen thousand feet above the level of the Pacific. All other views in America sink into littleness in comparison with this. From one spot, I have seen seven of

*Kelly's Mount Washington is the same called by Vancouver Mount Hood, rising due east of the mouth of the Columbia, at the distance of about one hundred miles; Mount Adams iz the Mount St. Helen's, of the same navigator, under the 45th parallel; Mount Jefferson received that name from Lewis and Clarke, in 1805; it is the lofty peak in latitude of 44 degrees, which the British fur-traders have thought proper to call Mount Vancouver; Mount Madison is the Mount Maclaughlin of the British maps; Mount Monroe is in latitude of 43 degrees 20 minutes; Mount John Quincy Adams is in 42 degrees 10 minutes; Mount Jackson is a stupendous pinnacle, under the parallel of 41 degrees 40 minutes, called by the British Mount Pitt.

the high points of this range, extending from north to south, their perfect whiteness and steep conical shape causing them to appear like huge sugarloaves."*

The distance from the coast to the foot of this chain is in some places one hundred miles, in others much less. The intervening country is crossed in various directions by low ridges connected with the principal chain, some of which run parallel to it, while others stretch towards the ocean. Between these ridges are valleys, of which the two most extensive lie immediately at the base of the great chain, and are drained by rivers flowing into the Columbia; the waters from the others falling directly into the Pacific. Of the two rivers which empty into the Columbia, the northern, called the Cowilitz, has been imperfectly examined, and little has been reported concerning it. The southern, described by Lewis and Clarke as the Multonomah, but now more generally known as the Wallamet, has been traced more than two hundred miles due south, from its entrance into the Columbia, through a valley which is said to be the most delightful and fertile part of Northwest America.

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The climate of this region is more favorable to agriculture than those of the other parts of Oregon, although it is certainly adverse to great produc tiveness. The summer is warm and very dry. From April to October, while the westerly winds prevail, rain seldom falls in any part of Oregon; during the other months, when the south wind blows constantly, the rains are almost incessant in the lower region, although sometimes the dry season there continues longer. Farther from the Pacific, the rains are less frequent and abundant; and near the Rocky Mountains, they are reduced to a few showers in the spring. In the valleys of the low country snow is rarely seen, and the ground is not often frozen, so that ploughing may generally be carried on during the whole winter. In 1834 the Columbia was frozen for thirteen days, but this was principally in consequence of the accumulation of ice from above. "This country," says Mr. Wyeth, "is well calculated for wheat, barley, oats, rye, pease, apples, potatoes, and all the roots cultivated in the northern States of the Union; Indian corn does not succeed well, and is an unprofitable crop. The yield of wheat, with very poor cultivation, is about fifteen bushels of the best quality to the acre. Horses and neat cattle succeed tolerably well; the winter being mild, they are enabled to subsist upon the produce of the open fields. Hogs live and multiply, but cannot be made fat on the range of the country. The agriculture of this region must always suffer from the extreme dryness of the summer. The products which ripen earliest sustain the least damage, but those which come late are often injured." Of the soil of this region, the same acute observer says: "The uplands are tolerably good, but the cost of clearing the enormous growth of timber on them would be beyond their worth; it is too thick and heavy to allow of crops being obtained by girdling the trees; and it must be removed or burnt, the labor of which is beyond the conception of those acquainted only with the forests of the United States. There are, however, prairies sufficiently numerous and extensive for the cultivation of the next century, which, being chiefly on the second bottoms of rivers, are extremely fertile, and above inundation." The forests in this part of

* Letter from Nath. Wyeth, in the report of the committee of the House of Representatives on the Oregon Territory, presented February 16, 1838. See page 196 of this memoir.

America are, from all accounts, magnificent. Ross Cox describes a fir growing near Fort George, or Astoria, on the Columbia, about eight miles from the sea, which measured forty-six feet in circumference at ten feet from the ground, one hundred and fifty-three feet in length before giving off a branch, and not less than three hundred feet in its whole height. Another tree, of the same species, is said to be standing on the banks of the Umqua, the trunk of which is fifty-seven feet in circumference, and two hundred and sixteen feet in length, below its branches. Cox adds, that "prime sound pines, from two hundred to two hundred and eighty feet in height, and from twenty to forty feet in circumference, are by no means uncommon."

XIII. The Blue Mountains extend from north to south, though the whole territory of the Columbia, between the Rocky Mountains and the chain which borders the coast. Their course is not so regular or clearly defined as those of the other chains; and they appear to be broken into several ridges, some of which run towards the,Rocky Mountains on the east, while others join the westernmost chain. These mountains are steep and rocky, generally volcanic, and some of them covered with eternal snow; they are crossed by both branches of the Columbia, which also receives several tributaries from the valleys on their western sides.

The middle region of Oregon, between the mountains nearest the coast on the west and the Blue Mountains on the east, is more elevated, more dry, and less fertile, than the low country. It consists chiefly of plains, between ridges of mountains, the soil of which is generally a yellow sandy clay, covered with grass, small shrubs, and prickly pears. Timber is very scarce; the trees, which are small, and of soft useless woods, such as cotton-wood, sumach, and willow, being only found in the neighborhood of the streams. The climate during the summer is universally represented as most agreeable and salubrious; the days are warm, and the nights cool; but the want of moisture in the air prevents the contrast of temperature from being injurious to the health. The rains begin later in the year, and end sooner, than in the lower country, and they are less constant and heavy. There is little snow in the southern valleys; farther north it is more common.

Few attempts at cultivation have been made in this region, and they have not been, upon the whole, successful. Wyeth conceives that "the agriculture of this territory must always be limited to the wants of a pastoral people, and to the immediate vicinity of the streams and mountains; and irrigation must be resorted to, if a large population is to be supported in it. This country, which affords little prospect for the tiller of the soil, is perhaps one of the best for grazing in the world. It has been much underrated by travellers who have only passed by the Columbia, the land along which is a collection of sand and rocks, and almost without vegetation; but a few miles from the Columbia, towards the hills and mountains, the prairies open wide, covered with a low grass of a most nutritious kind, which remains good throughout the year. In September there are slight rains, at which time the grass starts; and in October and November there is a good coat of green grass, which remains so until the ensuing summer; and about June it is ripe in the lower plains, and, drying without being wet, is like made hay; in this state it remains until the autumn rains again revive it. The herdsman in this extensive valley (of more than one hundred and fifty miles in width) could at all times

keep his animals in good grass, by approaching the mountains in summer, on the declivities of which almost any climate may be had; and the dry grass of the country is at all times excellent. It is in this section of the country that all the horses are reared for the supply of the Indians and traders in the interior. It is not uncommon that one Indian owns some hundreds of them. I think this section, for producing hides, tallow, and beef, is superior to any part of North America; for, with equal facilities for raising the animals, the weather in winter, when the grass is best, and consequently the best time to fatten the animals, is cold enough to salt meat, which is not the case in Upper California. There is no question that sheep might be raised to any extent, in a climate so dry and sufficiently warm, where very little snow or rains falls. It is also, I think, the healthiest country I have ever been in, which, I suppose, arises from the small quantity of decaying vegetable matter, and there being no obstruction from timber to the passing winds."

XIV. The third and last natural division of Oregon is the high country, included between the Blue Mountains on the west and the Rocky Mountains on the east. The southern part of this region is a desert, of steep rocky mountains, deep narrow valleys, called holes by the fur-traders, and wide plains, covered with sand or gravel, generally volcanic, which can never be rendered capable of supporting more than a very small number of inhabitants. The distinguishing features of this territory are, its extreme dryness, and the great difference in temperature between the day and the night. It seldom rains, except during a few days in the spring; there is little snow in the valleys in winter, though a great deal falls occasionally on the mountain tops; and no moisture is deposited in dews. Mr. Wyeth saw the thermometer, on the banks of Snake River, in August, 1832, mark eighteen degrees of Fahrenheit at sunrise, and ninety-two degrees at noon of the same day; and he says that a difference of forty degrees between sunrise and noon is not uncommon. Such circum

stances are alone sufficient to render any attempts at cultivation in this region entirely fruitless; and a great portion of the surface is moreover so strongly impregnated with salts of various kinds, that plants could not flourish in it, even were a sufficiency of heat and moisture regularly supplied. In this region, nevertheless, are situated the sources of all the principal branches of the Columbia, the northernmost of which rises near the 54th parallel, and the southernmost near the 42d; they, of course, receive their waters from the mountains, as very little can be furnished by the valleys. There are also many lakes in this part of America, some of which communicate with the Columbia; the others have no outlets, and their waters are therefore necessarily salt. The largest of these collections of salt water,

* Whenever water runs on or through the earth, it finds salts, which it dissolves, and carries with itself to its recipient. If that recipient have no outlet either above or under the surface of the earth, by which it communicates with some lower recipient, and thus its waters are not taken from it except by evaporation, the salt carried into it by streams must necessarily be constantly accumulating there, as evaporation does not abstract a single saline particle. If the facts here stated be admitted as true, the deductions cannot be denied; and it is believed that no case can be cited in contradiction of either. In like manner, the surfaces of great plains or valleys, from which the water is not carried off either by streams or by infiltration, are always impregnated with salt. Of this, the high plains of Mexico, and the valleys immediately west of the Rocky Mountains, offer examples; the soil of the parts not regularly drained being so salt as to render vegetation impossible, even where all the other requisites are furnished in abundance. The reverse is not always true; nevertheless, the saltness of a large body of water, or of a large extent of ground, affords strong reasons for suspecting that there is no regular drain from it into a lower recipient.

is that called by the Indians Lake Youta, and represented on the old Spanish maps as Lake Timpanogos, situated in one of the valleys or hollows produced by the interlocking of the Snowy Mountains with the other chains, near the Rocky Mountains. Very little is known as to the extent and position of this lake, except that it is very large, that it is surrounded by high mountains, and that it receives on its northern side a considerable stream, called the Bear River. Captain Wyeth places its northern extremity in latitude of 42 degrees 3 minutes. In one of the maps attached to Mr. Irving's account of Captain Bonneville's Adventures in the Far West, that point is represented under the parallel of 42 degrees 50 minutes; while in the other map illustrating the same work, it is placed still farther north by half a degree. In the map annexed to this memoir, Lake Youta is made to extend from 40 to 41 degrees, on the authority of Arrowsmith; which position appears more conformable than any other with the best accounts.

The northern part of the upper region about the Clarke River is less barren than that which has been just described; the valleys are wider, the rains more frequent, and the soil is freed from salt by the numerous streams which traverse it.

The country east of the Rocky Mountains, for more than two hundred miles, is almost as dry and barren as that immediately on the western side; offering no means of support for a population, except in the vicinity of the rivers, which flow through it from the great chain into the Mississippi. The interposition of this wide desert-tract between the productive regions of the Mississippi and those of the Columbia, must retard the settlement of the latter countries, and exercise a powerful influence over their political destinies.

XV. The Columbia River now remains to be particularly noticed, and it will be traced from the sources of its principal confluents to the ocean. The northernmost stream of the Columbia is Canoe River, which rises near the 54th degree of latitude, and near the 52d is joined by two other streams, at a place called by the fur-traders Boat Encampment. Of the two streams which join Canoe River, one flows from the south along the base of the Rocky Mountains; the other rises in a great gorge of that chain, under the parallel of 53 degrees, its head being a small lake, within a few feet of which is another, whence the waters run into the Athabasca, one of the branches of the Mackenzie. Of this gorge, Cox says: "The country around our encampment presented the wildest and most terrific appearance of desolation. The sun, shining on a range of stupendous glaciers, threw a chilling brightness over the chaotic mass of rocks, ice, and snow, by which we were environed. Close to our encampment, one gigantic mountain, of conical form, towered majestically into the clouds, far above the others; while at intervals, the interest of the scene was heightened by the rumbling noise of a descending avalanche." The ground about this spot is higher than any other in North America, and probably on the whole western continent.

After a course of about two hundred miles due south from the point of union of the three streams above mentioned, the Columbia receives Macgillivray's River, and a little lower down Clarke's, or the Flathead River, both flowing from the Rocky Mountains. Clarke's river is nearly as large as the Columbia, above the place of their junction; its sources are situa. ted within a short distance of those of the Missouri, and, as the interven

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