first constitutional convention were not indifferent to education. But their view of the subject was the view of all men of their time, i. e., that it was highly desirable that all social organizations should encourage, perhaps even by that time that it was proper for government to see that schools were maintained, but that the real responsibility, and of course the expense, should fall upon people legally chargeable with the custody of children. The functions of gov ernment touching education were not then under consideration at all, and when they forced themselves upon public attention the towns, and, when the exercise of the power of taxation became imperative, the states assumed them as they were bound to do.

Accordingly, the federal government has never exercised any control over the public educational work of the country. But it may be said with emphasis that that government has never been indifferent thereto. It has shown its interest at different times by generous gifts to education, and by the organization of a bureau of education for the purpose of gathering the fullest information from all of the states, and from foreign nations as well, and for disseminating the same to all who would be interested therein.

The gifts of the United States to the several states to encourage schools have been in the form of land rights from the public domain. In the sale of public lands the practice of reserving one lot in every township "for the maintenance of public schools within the township" has uniformly been followed. In 1786 officers of the revolutionary army petitioned congress for the right to settle territory north and west of the Ohio river. A committee reported a bill in favor of granting the request, which provided that one section in each township should be reserved for common schools, one section for the support of religion, and four townships for the support of a university. This was modified so as to give one section for the support of religion, one for common schools, and two townships for the support of a "literary institution to be applied to the intended object by the leg

islature of the state.". This provision, coupled with the splendid declaration that "religion, morality and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged," foreshadowed the general disposition and policy of the central government and made the "Ordinance of 1787 for the government of the Northwest territory" famous. The precedent here established became national policy, and after the year 1800 each state admitted to the Union, with the exception of Maine, Texas and West Virginia, received two or more townships of land for the founding of a university. In 1836 congress passed an act distributing to the several states the surplus funds in the treasury. In all $28,101,645 was so distributed, and in a number of the states this was devoted to educational uses.

But the most noble, timely, and carefully guarded gift of the federal government was embodied in the land grant act of 1862 for colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts. This act gave to each state thirty thousand acres of land for each senator and representative in congress to which the state was entitled under the census of 1860, for the purpose of founding "at least one college where the leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the legislatures of the states shall respectively prescribe, in order to promote the liberal education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions of life." This act has been added to by other congressional enactments and the proceeds of the sales of lands have been generously supplemented by the state legislatures until great peoples' colleges and universities have arisen in all of the States.

The work of the United States bureau of education is a

most exact, stimulating and beneficent one. Without exercising any authority, it is untiring and scientific in gathering data, in the philosophic treatment of educational subjects,

and in furnishing the fullest information upon every conceivable phase of educational activity to whomsoever would accept it. Its operations have by no means been confined to the United States. It has become the great educational clearing house of the world. The commissioners who have been at the head of this bureau have been eminent men and great educational leaders. The present commissioner, Dr. William T. Harris, stands without a peer as the most philosophical thinker and the readiest writer upon educational subjects in the world. Under such fortunate direction the bureau of education has collected the facts and made most painstaking research into every movement in America and elsewhere which gave promise of advantage to the good cause of popular education.

So, while the government of the United States is not chargeable under the constitution with providing or supervising schools, and while it does not exercise authority in the matter, it will be quickly seen that it has been steadily and intelligently and generously true to the national instinct to advance morality and promote culture by its influence and its resources.

PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS

Up to this time we have been treating of the American public school system, using the term in its strictest sense. We have been referring to the schools supported by public moneys and supervised by public officers. Yet there is an infinite number of other schools which comprise an important part of the educational system of the country and are of course subject to its laws. Any statement concerning American school organization and administration, even of the most general character, would be incomplete which did not cover these, but obviously it is not desirable in this connection to do more than touch upon the relation in which they stand, by common usage and under the laws, to American education.

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In the first half of the century just closing many private academies" or "seminaries" sprang up in all directions

where the country had become at all settled. This was in response to a demand from people who began to reach out, but could not get what they wanted in the common schools. Any teacher with a little more than ordinary gifts could open one of these schools upon a little higher plane than usual and very soon have an abundance of pupils and a profitable income. Many of these institutions did most excellent work. Not a few of the leading citizens of the country owe their first inspiration and much help to them. The larger part of these schools served their purpose and finally gave way to new public high schools. Some yet remain and continue to meet the desires of well-to-do and select families who prefer their somewhat exclusive ways. A considerable number have been adopted by their states and developed into state normal schools, and not a few have by their own natural force grown into literary colleges.

The earlier American colleges were, in the beginning, in a large sense the children of the state. Yale, Harvard, Princeton, Columbia were all chartered by and in some measure supported by their states at the start, and are yet subject to the law, though they have become independent of such support. A vast number of colleges has been established by the religious denominations for the training of their ministry, and, so far as possible, for giving all their youth a higher education while keeping them under their denominational influence.

In recent years innumerable schools have arisen out of private enterprise. Every conceivable interest has produced a school to promote its own ends and accordingly adjusted to its own thought. So professional, technical, industrial and commercial schools of every kind have sprung up on every hand.

All such schools operate by the tacit leave of the states in which they exist. The states are not disposed to interfere with them, as they ask no public support. Some of them hold charters granted by the legislature, and more secure recognized standing by organizing under general cor

poration laws enacted to cover all such enterprises. In some cases the states distribute public moneys to some of these institutions by way of encouragement, and perhaps impose certain conditions upon which they shall be eligible to share in such distributions. But ordinarily a state does no more than protect its own good name against occasional impostors who wear the livery of heaven to serve the devil more effectually, and it is feared that some states have not yet come to do this as completely as they ought.

The tendency to regulate private schools by legislation, to the extent at least of seeing that they are not discreditable to the state, is unmistakable. New York, for example, has prohibited the use of the name "college" or "university" except when the requirements of the state board of regents All of the reputable institutions, and they constitute nearly the whole number,-desire reasonable supervision, for it certifies their respectability and constitutes them a part of the public educational system of the state.

are met.

EXPERT SUPERVISION

It has not been convenient in tracing the preceding pages to treat of an exceedingly important phase of the American school system which distinguishes that system from any other national system of education, and which has come to be well established in our laws; that is, supervision by professional experts, both generally and locally.

From the beginning the laws have provided methods for certificating persons deemed to be qualified to teach in the schools. This has ordinarily been among the functions of state, city, and county superintendents or commissioners. Sometimes boards of examiners have been created whose only duty should be to examine and certificate teachers. The functions of certificating and of employing teachers have, for obvious reasons, not commonly been lodged in the same officials. Superintendents began to be provided for by law in the early part of the century. The first state superin