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Journal he was a frequent contributor, he exercised a profound influence upon his profession. His voluminous writings, both in the Veterinarian and in his books upon the domestic animals are widely consulted and quoted. Among his books are: The Horse (1831; 2d ed. 1843); Cattle, Their Breeds, Management, and Diseases (1824); Sheep, Their Breeds, Management, and Diseases, and the Mountain Shepherd's Manual (1837); The Dog (1845); The Pig: A Treatise on Breeds, Management, Feeding, and Medical Treatment of Swine; with Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Ham (1847).

YOUMANS, yōō'manz, EDWARD LIVINGSTON (1821-87). An American scientist, born at Coeymans, N. Y. When only seventeen years old, he was afflicted with a malady of the eyes from which he suffered during the remainder of his life. Despite this handicap, however, he managed to acquire a good education. In 1845 his sister, Eliza Ann Youmans, became his reader and amanuensis, and with her aid he undertook the study of chemistry. In 1851 he prepared a Chemical Chart which won such favor that the next year he published a Class-Book of Chemistry. From that time on he devoted himself with remarkable success to popularizing science. He became a lecturer, founded (1872) and until his death edited the Popular Science Monthly magazine, planned the publication of the "International Scientific Series," by means of which works by the greatest scientists of all nations were published simultaneously in the principal modern languages, and introduced the works of Herbert Spencer and of other British scientists to American readers. Among his own publications are: Handbook of Household Science; (1857); The Correlation and Conservation of Forces (1864); and Culture Demanded by Modern Life (1867).

YOUMANS, WILLIAM JAY (1838-1901). An American scientist, born at Milton, N. Y., brother of Edward Livingston Youmans (q.v.). He studied chemistry under his brother and at Columbia and Yale, then took a course in medicine at New York University, and in 1865 studied natural history under Huxley in London. On his return to the United States he settled at Winona, Minn., and practiced medicine for about three years. In 1872 he assisted his brother in establishing and subsequently was associated in editing the Popular Science Monthly. After his brother's death in 1887 he became its editorin-chief. He edited Huxley's Lessons in Elementary Physiology, and wrote Pioneers of Science in America (1895.

YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820). A noted British agriculturist and author, born in London. Prior to 1759 he had written four novels and several political pamphlets which seem to have had no permanent value. In 1763 he took up farming, which, combined with rural investigations at home and abroad, became his life work. The permanent value and enormous amount of his agricultural writings, based largely upon personal experience and observation, place him well in advance of all British agricultural authors, and the sprightly style renders much of his product entertaining even to-day. His Travels in France pictures not only French agriculture, but the conditions prevalent in France prior to the French Revolution; hence it is a reliable source

of information upon both these subjects. Young became one of the best known men of his time; secretary of the British Board of Agriculture (1793), and honorary member of the leading scientific societies of the world. Some of his best known works are: A Six Weeks' Tour Through the Southern Counties of England and Wales (1768); Annals of Agriculture (17841809, 1812-15); Travels in France During the Years 1787, 1788, and 1789 (1794).

YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-77). The successor of Joseph Smith, Jr., as president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. (See MORMONS.) He was born in Whitingham, Windham County, Vt., June 1, 1801. He removed to Mendon, Monroe County, N. Y., and was baptized into the Mormon Church April 14, 1832. Appointed an elder, he first met the Prophet. Joseph at Kirtland, Ohio. After a successful mission to Canada he went to Missouri in the 'Army of Zion.' Elected as one of the original Quorum of Twelve in 1835, he was called to preach to the Indians, and finally started on a mission to the Eastern States. In 1840 he was sent to Liverpool to assist Apostles John Taylor and Wilford Woodruff (qq.v.) in the English mission and became an editor of the Millennial Star. Upon the apostasy of T. B. Marsh, Young was left president of the Twelve, and held this position until his election as president of the Church, December 5, 1847. After the murder of Smith in 1844 Young remonstrated with the Mormons for their depredations in Missouri, and in turn demanded fair treatment from the Quincy Committee upon the expulsion of the Mormons from Illinois. The next year, having vainly sought Federal aid from President Polk, he urged the Saints to move somewhere west of the Rocky Mountains. In February, 1846, he was himself a member of the first party to leave Nauvoo, but stayed in winter quarters on the Missouri till the following January. Then he promulgated his first and only 'revelation,' to be found in the Book of Doctrine and Covenants. Reaching the Salt Lake Valley in 1848, he selected the site of the temple. Young's power over his followers was now shown by his prohibition of gold-mining, by his organization of the ill-fated handcart expedition, and by his election as Governor of the State of Deseret in 1849. The following year he was appointed by President Fillmore as Federal Governor of the Territory of Utah. Young's choice of his own ward bishops enabled him to control all local affairs and receive the bulk of the tithes. His suppression of the schismatic Gladdenites in 1853 led him to further steps against the exodus of the discontented, such as the murder of W. R. Parish, the organization of the 'Wolf Hunters,' and the instituting of 'blood atonement.' Defying the United States authorities sent out by President Buchanan in the so-called Mormon War of 1857, and indicted for treason after the Mountain Meadows massacre (q.v.), Young was nevertheless let alone by the Central Government. About this time he made his sole contribution to the body of Mormon divinity, the doctrine of the worship of Adam as God. In 1866 Young founded the Zion's Coöperative Mercantile Institution. 1871 the case against him for unlawful cohabitation was dropped as unconstitutional, but the divorce suit brought by Ann Eliza Young, known

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as wife No. 19,' was sustained. Young died August 29, 1877, and was reputed to have left between $2,000,000 and $3,000,000, 24 widows, and 44 children.

YOUNG, CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1834-). An American astronomer, born at Hanover, N. H. He graduated at Dartmouth (1853), and till 1855 taught at Phillips Academy, Andover. From 1856 to 1866 he was professor of natural philosophy and mathematics in the Western Reserve College, Ohio. In 1866 he was made professor of astronomy and natural philosophy in Dartmouth. In 1877 he was appointed to fill a similar position at Princeton. In observing the total eclipse of August, 1869, he made the first observation of the spectrum of the solar corona. He was also the discoverer of the 'reversing layer' in the solar atmosphere. (See SUN.) He also studied the prominences and chromosphere, the spectroscopic measurement of the sun's rotation, solar cyclones and explosions. He was a member of Winlock's party of 1870, and observed the total eclipse at Jerez, Spain. Young published many scientific papers and text-books, among which are The Sun (1882) and General Astronomy (1898).

YOUNG, EDWARD (1683-1765). An English poet, born at Upham, in Hampshire, where his father was rector. He was educated at Winchester School and at Oxford. He first came before the world as a poet with an Epistle to George Granville on Granville's being created a peer (1713). The next year this piece of fulsome flattery was followed by The Last Day, dedicated to the Queen; Force of Religion, with a dedication to the Countess of Salisbury; and an epistle on The Late Queen's Death. In 1719 Young tried his hand at a tragedy entitled Busiris, which was succeeded by Revenge (1721), long popular on the stage, and The Brothers (first produced in 1753). For The Instalment (1726), on the occasion of Walpole's being invested with the order of the Garter, Young was granted a Government pension of £200 a year. Between 1725 and 1728 appeared in succession a series of satires entitled The Love of Fame, the Universal Passion. Taking orders, Young became chaplain to the King (1728), and rector of Welwyn, in Hertfordshire (1730). In 1731 he married Lady Elizabeth Lee, who was a daughter of the second Earl of Litchfield, and died in 1741. Then followed the famous Night Thoughts on Life, Death, and Immortality (1742-45). Young passed his last years mostly in retirement, and died at the rectory of Welwyn.

Young's reputation rests almost wholly upon Night Thoughts. This series of poems contains passages of fine imagination, and sayings, like "Procrastination is the thief of time," that have passed into popular speech. The Night Thoughts, read by everybody, gave rise to a school of graveyard poets. Translated into French and German, the series was received with equal enthusiasm abroad. Besides his verse, Young wrote a remarkable essay entitled Conjectures on Original Composition (1759). Like the Night Thoughts, its influence was great on the Continent, espe cially in Germany. Young collected his works (4 vols., 1757). The poems, with a memoir by Herbert Croft, were included in Johnson's Lives of the Poets. A folio edition of Night Thoughts (1797) was illustrated with designs by William

Blake (q.v.). Consult Young's Poetical Works, edited with a Life by J. Mitford (London, 1854), and by G. Gilfillan (Edinburgh, 1853); and the exhaustive study of his life and works by Thomas, under the title, Le poète Edward Young (Paris, 1901). For his influence in France, consult Terte,

Cosmopolitisme littéraire (Paris, 1895; Eng. trans. by J. W. Matthews, London, 1899). George "Worldliness and Other Worldliness," in WestEliot wrote a famous essay on Young, entitled minster Review (1857).

YOUNG, EDWARD (1831-96). An English explorer, born at Hastings. In 1862 he commanded the ship Pioneer to the Zambezi and the Shire rivers under Livingstone. In 1867 he commanded the Livingstone search expedition. He was commissioned by the Free Church of Scotland to conduct a mission to Lake Nyassa in 1875, and at this time discovered the Livingstone Mountains and established the Livingstonia settlement. He wrote: The Search After Livingstone, a journal revised by Rev. Horace Waller (1868), and Nyassa, a Journal of Adventures While Exploring Lake Nyassa, Central Africa, and Establishing the Settlement of Livingstonia (1896).

YOUNG, Sir GEORGE (1837-). An English lawyer, born at Cookham and educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1864. He served on the royal commission on the coolie immigra tion in British Guiana in 1870 and was secretary of the Factory and Workshops Acts Commission in 1875, and of the Irish Land Acts Commission in 1881. His publications include: Essay on Greek Literature in England, for which he received the Le Bas prize (1862), and Dramas of Sophocles Rendered in English Verse, Dramatic and Lyric (1888).

YOUNG, GEORGE PAXTON (1818-89). A Canadian educator, born in Scotland. He became a minister of the Free Church of Scotland, and in 1848 took charge of Knox Church, Hamilton. In 1853 he was appointed professor of logic, mental and moral philosophy, and the evidences of natural and revealed religion, at Knox College. In 1864 he was appointed inspector of grammar schools for Ontario, and in 1868 was given charge of the Knox College preparatory department. He was made professor of metaphysics and ethics in University College, Toronto, in 1871. He was considered one of the ablest teachers and professors that Canada has ever had. His earlier works include: Miscellaneous Discourses and Ex

positions of Scripture (1854), and The Philosophical Principles of Natural Religion (1862).

YOUNG, JAMES (1811-83). A Scotch chemist, born at Glasgow. He was for several years assistant to Thomas Graham. About 1847 he began a series of analyses of petroleum, and succeeded in producing a lubricating oil for machinery and a lighter oil for lamps. He afterwards took out a patent for a process of slow destructive distillation of coal, paraffin being among the useful products obtained, and thus founded a new and important industry. (See PARAFFIN.) His discoveries showed the value of coal-oil and petroleum, and have contributed greatly to the development of the American petroleum industry. In 1872 he fitted out an expedition in search of Dr. Livingtsone.

YOUNG, Sir JOHN (1807-76). A British administrator, born at Bombay, India. He was educated at Eton and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he graduated in 1829. From 1831 to 1855 he was a Tory member of Parliament. He became Lord of the Treasury in 1841, was Chief Secretary for Ireland from 1852 to 1855, and was Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian Islands from 1855 to 1859, when he was recalled. From 1861 to 1867 he was Governor-General of New South Wales. In 1869 he was appointed Governor-General of Canada and Governor of Prince Edward's Island. During his administration he was called upon to suppress Louis Riel's rebellion, and as a reward for this service he was created Baron Lisgar on October 26, 1870. He returned to Europe in 1872 and spent the rest of his life in retirement.

YOUNG, JOHN RUSSELL (1841-99). An American journalist and diplomat, born in Downington, Pa. He was educated in the public schools of Philadelphia and New Orleans. He became news editor of the Philadelphia Press in 1861, when as private secretary he went to Wash ington with Forney, the owner of the paper, who had been elected secretary of the National Senate. Subsequently until after the battle of Williamsburg he was with the Army of the Potomac as a war correspondent. In 1864 he accompanied General Banks on his Red River expedition. After the war he was managing editor of the New York Tribune (1866-69); in 1870 founded the New York Standard, to which he contributed letters from Paris during the Franco-German War; and in 1872 became special foreign correspondent for the New York Herald. In 1877 he accompanied ex-President Grant on his trip around the world, an account of which he published under the title Around the World with General Grant (1879). He was then a member of the Herald editorial staff until 1882; and was United States Minister to China from 1882 to 1885. He continued in literary and journalistic work until 1897, when he was appointed by President McKinley librarian of the new Congressional Library at Washington. He edited a Memorial History of Philadelphia (1895), and was a frequent contributor to magazines and reviews.

YOUNG, ROBERT (1822-88). A Scotch biblical scholar and missionary, born in Edinburgh. He was superintendent of the mission press at Surat from 1856 to 1861, and in 1864-74 was in charge of the Missionary Institute at Edinburgh. His works include: The Book of the Precepts by Rabbi Moses, translated with a Life of the author (1852); Bible Commentary (1870); Analytical Concordance to the Bible (1879); Two-Fold Concordance to the Greek New Testament (1884); and Grammatical Analysis of the Hebrew, Chaldaic, and Greek Scriptures (1885).

YOUNG, SAMUEL BALDWIN MARKS (1840—). An eminent American soldier, first Chief of Staff of the Army of the United States, born in Pittsburg, Pa. In April, 1865, upon the outbreak of the Civil War, he entered the Federal Army as a private. He served with great efficiency throughout the war. attained the rank of colonel in December, 1864, and in April, 1865, was brevetted brigadier-general of volunteers for gallant services in the last campaign against General Lee. In March, 1867, he was also brevetted major,

lieutenant-colonel, and colonel in the Regular Army for gallantry at Sulphur Springs, Va., Amelia Spring, Va., and Salior's Creek, Va., respectively. In May, 1866, he entered the Regular Army as a second lieutenant, Twelfth Infantry. He attained the rank of colonel of the Third Cavalry in June, 1897, and in May, 1898, was made a brigadier-general of volunteers for service in the Spanish-American War. He served with marked ability under General Shafter in the early part of the Santiago campaign, was promoted to the rank of major-general of volunteers in July, 1898, and for a time commanded the Second Army Corps. He was honorably discharged as major-general of volunteers and appointed brigadier-general of volunteers in April, 1899, and from July, 1899, to March, 1901, served with great ability in the Philippines, where for a short time he was military Governor of Northwestern Luzon and commander of the first dis

trict of the Department of Northern Luzon. During this period he was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general in the Regular Army, in January, 1900, and to that of major-general in the Regular Army, in February, 1901. After his return from the Philippines he commanded the Department of California and helped to organize the new War College, and in August, 1903, on the retirement of General Miles, he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general and for a week was the Commanding General of the United States Army. On August 15, 1903, when the new general staff system went into effect, he became Chief of Staff of the Army.

YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829). A British scientist and archæologist. He was born at Milverton, in Somersetshire, of Quaker parents, and studied at a school at Compton, in Dorsetshire, and under a tutor. Toward the end of 1792 he began to study medicine in London, and afterwards at the University of Edinburgh. From Edinburgh he went to Göttingen, where he took the degree of doctor of medicine, returning to England in February, 1797. In order to qualify himself for membership in the College of Physicians, then restricted to graduates of Oxford and Cambridge, he entered at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, as a fellow-commoner, where he received his degree in 1799. In the year 1799 he took up his residence in London, and began to practice as a physician.

In 1801 he was appointed professor of natural philosophy in the Royal Institution, then newly established. Elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1794, in 1802 he became its foreign secretary, a post which he retained till the end of his life. He resigned his professorship in 1803, fearing that his filling a chair of science might interfere with his success as a physician.

Young was elected one of the physicians of Saint George's Hospital in 1811. He afterwards published several medical works, which, though they were little more than compilations, and are now forgotten, show that he was thoroughly versed in the history of diseases and of medical opinion. Of these the most important were Medical Literature (1813) and Practical and Historical Essay on Consumptive Diseases (1815). He retired from practice in 1814 on his appointment as inspector of calculations in the Palladium Life Insurance Company. He served in 1814 also on a commission appointed

to investigate the dangers involved in the introduction of illuminating gas in London, and in 1816 he was appointed a member of a commission to determine the length of the seconds pendulum, and which also determined the 'Imperial gailon' of ten pounds of water. In 1818 Young became secretary of the Board of Longitude and superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, in which capacity he served until the dissolution of the board in 1828, when he became the sole conductor of the Nautical Almanac. During the last years of his life he was a member of a council appointed to advise the Admiralty in scientific matters.

Young was the first to describe and measure astigmatism, as well as to study the optical constants of the eye, and explained color sensation by the theory that the eye contained three sets of nerves or receptive systems located at the retina and corresponding to red, green, and violet, and that color-blindness was the result of a deficiency of one or the other of these systems. Young is often called the founder of physiological optics, and his theory was adopted and amplified by Helmholtz with the result that at present it is generally accepted. His most famous work in optics was his demonstration of the wave theory, which since the time of Huygens (1690) had made but slight progress. This was accomplished by his discovery of the 'interference of light,' which served to explain the color of thin and thick plates and various other phenomena. Young stated that "radiant light consists of undulations of the luminiferous ether," and maintained his position in spite of the numerous attacks to which his theories and papers were subjected. Many of the phenomena of polarized light were also discussed by Young, and to him are due many discoveries which were later developed by other physicists. To Young is due the use of the terms energy' and 'labor expended,' the former meaning the product of the mass of a body and the square of its velocity, whereas the latter, which is equivalent to the 'work done,' denotes the products of the force exerted and the distance through which the body is moved, both quantities being proportional to each other. The expression known as Young's modulus represents the use of absolute measurements in elasticity and denotes the weight which would stretch a rod or wire of unit cross-section to double its length. His explanation of capillary phenomena was the first correct one.

Young also conducted researches in Egyptology (q.v.), and published an Account of Some Recent Discoveries in Hieroglyphical Literature and Egyptian Antiquities (1823). He was at work on an Egyptian dictionary when he died. Young's work in physics was never adequately appreciated by his contemporaries and his countrymen. In fact, his great discovery of interference and its bearing on the undulatory theory of light was established largely through the activities of Fresnel and Arago, and to them he is indebted for the general recognition which his theory has since received. Young has been described by Helmholtz as "one of the most clear-sighted men who have ever lived, but he had the misfortune to be too greatly superior in sagacity to his contemporaries. They gazed at him with astonishment, but could not always follow the bold flights of his intellect, and thus a multitude of his most

important ideas lay buried and forgotten in the great tomes of the Royal Society of London, till a later generation in tardy advance remade his discoveries and convinced itself of the accuracy and force of his interferences." Consult: Peacock, A Life of Young; also Miscellaneous Works of Young, edited by Peacock and Leitch (London, 1857). His lectures before the Royal Institution have been published in two volumes.

YOUNG CHEVALIER, THE. A title given to Charles Edward Stuart, son of the Old Pretender.

YOUNG ENGLAND. A faction of the Conservative Party which had its rise about the year 1843 under the leadership of Disraeli and Lord John Manners. It sought to combat the rise of militant democracy by bringing about a the people in the spirit largely of the mediæval closer connection between the upper classes and feudalism, adapting itself to modern industrial conditions. The party disappeared in 1845. Disraeli has delineated the character of the movement in his novels Sybil and Coningsby.

YOUNG EUROPE. An international association formed in 1834 on the model of Mazzini's Young Italy (q.v.). It was composed of the national societies of Young Italy, Young Poland, and Young Germany, which, independent in their own sphere, acted in common, through a central committee, for the furthering of the principles of liberty, equality, and humanity in Europe. The headquarters of the society were in Switzerland, where, in 1835-36, was brought about the organization of a French society, Young France. The activity of the society speedily aroused the opposition of the Swiss authorities, who expelled many of its members from the country. Its influence quickly disappeared.

YOUNG GERMANY. The name given to a group of German writers, of whom Heine (q.v.) was the most famous, which in the third decade of the nineteenth century initiated a revolt against the prevailing spirit of romanticism in the national literature, which had resulted in a total separation of literature from the actualities of life. Against the dominant spirit of absolutism in politics and obscurantism in religion the writers of this school maintained the principles of democracy, socialism, and rationalism. Among many things they advocated the separation of Church and State, the emancipation of the Jews, and the raising of the political and social position of women. In 1835 the Federal Diet issued a decree forbidding the publication of the works of Heine, Gutzkow, Laube, Mundt, and Wienbarg (qq.v.).

YOUNG IRELAND. A party which had its rise during the agitation for the repeal of the Act of Union carried on by O'Connell (q.v.) after 1841, and differing from that great leader in their advocacy of forcible means for the attainment of their demands. The break between the Young Ireland Party and the conservative section became definite about the year 1844. Those who took a prominent part in the movement were Thomas Osborne Davis (q.v.), Gavan Duffy (q.v.), John Mitchell. Thomas Francis Meagher (q.v.), John Blake Dillon, and William Smith O'Brien (q.v.). In the Nation, the organ of the party, the people of Ireland were repeatedly called upon to revolt, and in the

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YOUNG ITALY. A society organized by Mazzini (q.v.) in 1831 for the purpose of effecting the liberation of the Italian peninsula from Austrian domination and its union under a republican form of government. As distinguished from the Carbonari (q.v.), the new society sought to attain its aims by a campaign of agitation and open insurrection rather than by conspiracy. It first became openly active in the beginning of 1834, when occurred the abortive invasion of Savoy by Mazzini. Before this, however, the Sardinian Government had obtained full cognizance of the movement through its spies and had entered upon a course of severe repression, a number of the leaders being put to death and others being subjected to imprisonment and exile. The impracticable character of Mazzini made it evident that a successful revolution was impossible, and the society rapidly declined in influence, its place being taken by the more conservative national movement of which the Sardinian monarch was coming to assume the leadership. The society, nevertheless, did great good in quickening the spirit of Italian patriotism, and to a very large extent made the work of Victor Emmanuel and Cavour possible. It was the model for a number of revolutionary societies throughout Europe in the stormy period preceding the upheaval of 1848. See YOUNG EUROPE; ITALY.

YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS. Societies of young men composed of an active controlling membership identified with evangelical churches and of a more numerous associate membership not yet connected with the churches. All their work seeks to promote the physical, social, mental, and spiritual welfare of their members.

NORTH AMERICA. The associations in the United States and Canada have been always affiliated, and in 1902 a promising organization was added in the City of Mexico.

were

The first associations on the continent were organized in December, 1851, at Montreal and Boston, both as a result of information received regarding the society organized seven years earlier in London, England. Forty more formed within three years. Their first international convention was held at Buffalo, N. Y., June 7, 1854. A confederation was formed, with a Central Committee and an annual convention, which lasted until the Civil War. greatly diminished the membership, and the organizations that survived worked chiefly among soldiers in the field. At a special convention of the Northern associations, held in New York, November, 1861, the United States Christian Commission was formed. It received the prac tical sympathy of the Christian public, sent 5000 helpers to camps and hospitals, and distributed

The war

over $5,000,000 in money and stores. The associations in the South did similar army work, but not in a general organized capacity.

After the war the association entered upon a period of growth. Leading business men consented to serve in official positions. Employed officers increased in number and much more in experience and efficiency. Carefully planned buildings were erected, the indebtedness on earlier buildings was canceled, and great improvement in equipment was realized. But the chief gain came in the steady advance, through accumulated experience, of all standards of work. A general outline of this growth is shown in the following table:

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THE WORK OF EACH ASSOCIATION. The local association has absolute autonomy, except that to affiliate with the international convention there must be constitutional provision restricting active (voting and office-bearing) membership to men in communion with some evangelical Church. A typical association may be thus described: (1) Membership (a) active, who carry most of the moral character. responsibility; (b) associate, young men of good

mittees.

directors, the usual officers, and numerous com(2) An incorporated board of Real estate is generally held by a board of trustees. The members of these boards and tive officer a salaried secretary, whose chief recommittees number some 40,000. (3) As execusponsibility is to supervise, organize, and administer.

(4) A specially constructed building, with reception room, offices, reading room, liclassrooms, and quarters for boys' department. brary, meeting and recreation rooms, educational Modern buildings often contain dormitories for young men, which produce revenue and contribute toward the social life, especially when a restaurant is added. (5) Organized departments: (a) business-general supervision, membership; (b) religious-Bible and workers' training

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