cuts were common in Southern Germany, and perhaps in the Netherlands. They are the merest rude outlines, intended to be colored, and represent saints and similar subjects (whence the name Helgen), which were distributed by the clergy for purposes of religious instruction. The earliest dated example is the well-known print of "Saint Christopher" (1423); the date assigned to the far finer "Madonna with the Child and Angels" (1413, Brussels Library) not being certain. Although playing cards were printed at this and even at an earlier date, there is not sufficient reason to find in them, as has been done, the origin of wood-engraving. Both Helgen and playing cards antedated considerably the block books,' in which illustrations, with an appropriate printed text, were cut upon the same block of wood, before the invention of movable type. The origin of block books is a matter of dispute, being variously assigned to the Netherlands and to Germany. Among the oldest surviving example the Apocalypse is of German origin, probably from Cologne. Other celebrated works are the Canticum Canticorum, the Biblia Pauperum (q.v.), which survives in the most numerous examples, and the Ars Moriendi-all from the Netherlands, where, indeed, the most beautiful block books were made. The invention of printing from movable types, which was perfected in 1454, gave a new impetus to wood-engraving. Illustrations were required for the books which now became common, and the printing press furnished a better means of taking an impression than the former process of rubbing or printing from a roller. The first printed book from movable types with woodcut illustrations was a book of fables, Liber Similitudinis, printed by Pfister at Bamberg in 1461; a very superior artistic stage is represented in illustrations of the Speculum Humana Vitæ, a Netherlandish work often erroneously considered a block book. The centres of the art shifted to the cities of Germany, where printing presses were established-like Cologne, Nuremberg, Augs burg, and Basel. Very widely circulated and imitated were the illustrations of the Cologne Bible (1475), remarkable for their vigor and realism, and of the Augsburg Bible (1475). Of great importance, too, were the different city chronicles, the best of which was Schedel's Liber Chronicarum (Nuremberg, 1493). Its illustrations, designed by Wohlgemuth and Pleydenwurff, the Nuremberg artists, were remark able as being the first in which the mere outlines were replaced by a system of light and shade. From Basel and Nuremberg wood-engraving was introduced to Lyons, where the first engravings date from 1476. Somewhat later it was practiced in Paris, which city soon became famous for the Livres des heures of its celebrated printers, executed with great elegance in imitation of the illuminated manuscripts of the day. The manière criblée (q.v.), in which we find a number of French fourteenth-century prints, was probably not a wood, but a metal process; a similar process of wood-engraving is now used for astronomical illustrations. Wood-engraving was introduced into Italy by German printers, the earliest illustrated book being printed at Rome in 1467; but the centre of the art was Venice. Italian wood-engraving speedily differentiated itself from the German, by a superior skill in the arts of design. Simplicity of line and idealism of form and conception are the chief characteristics; its spirit is manifest in such works as Esop's Fables (Verona, 1481), and in the charming Epistles of Saint Jerome (Ferrara, 1497). The delightful Hypnerotomachia Poliphili (Venice, 1499) embodies, as does no other illustrated work, the joyous youthful spirit of the Italian Renaissance. Though variously assigned to Bellini, Raphael, and others, it is probably the work of Benedetto Montagna. During the fifteenth century woodcuts had been, for the most part, outline drawings, relying upon tinting for the final effect. They were cut with an instrument not unlike a penknife from the designs drawn upon blocks of apple or pear wood sawed lengthwise. In the very earliest engravings designer and engraver were usually the same person; but as the art progressed artists of importance designed for woodcuts. Woodengraving was an essentially democratic art. It occupied, in the early sixteenth century, a position analogous to that of the half-tone process in the nineteenth. For this reason its products are of highest interest as embodying the thoughts of the teachers and entertainers of the common people. the SIXTEENTH CENTURY. The last years of the fifteenth and the first half of the sixteenth century saw wood-engraving attain its highest development in Germany, where the motive for its practice, the need for popular religious instruction, was most intense. Albrecht Dürer, the greatest master of ancient woodcut, transformed the art. By the skillful introduction of light and dark he replaced the old outlines with some of the effect of color, putting an end to the need of tinting, while his narrative power and the grandeur of his design excelled anything hitherto done. According to the best research he did not himself use the knife; but he was intimately associated with a number of highly trained engravers, whose work he minutely directed, chief among whom was Hieronymus Andreæ. His Apocalypse (1498), Life of the Virgin (1504-05), Greater Passion (1510-11), and Lesser Passion (1509-10) were all epochmaking in the art. An important factor in the development of wood-engraving was commissions given by the Emperor Maximilian: the Triumphal Arch, nearly ten feet in height and breadth, composed of 93 plates by Dürer and his pupils; the Triumphal Procession and Weisskunig, by Hans Burckmair of Augsburg; and the Adventures of Sir Theuerdank by Hans Schäuffelein. Second only to Dürer as a designer for woodcuts, Holbein reveals his mastery of woodcut in the celebrated Dance of Death, and to some extent in his Bible, both published at Lyons (1538), though designed earlier. He had the good fortune to have as an engraver Hans Lützelburger, whose work represents the highest possible effects with the knife. The third great representative German designer for woodcut, Lucas Cranach (14721553), though inferior to the others in design, is important as the chief champion of the Reformation. The "Little Masters," who followed Dürer, were so called because of the small size of their designs. Among the best were Albrecht Altdorfer (1488-1538) of Ratisbon, Hans Sebald Beham, and Heinrich Aldegrever; of especial importance was Hans Baldung at Strassburg. During the latter half of the sixteenth century wood-engraving declined in Germany, partly owing to the competition of line engraving, which caused disastrous changes in the art. It was lost in the general decay of the arts resulting upon the Thirty Years' War. Outside of Germany there was important activity in the Netherlands, where Lucas van Leyden did especially good work, in rivalry with Dürer. The chief artists in the later sixteenth century were Hendrick Goltzius and Christopher Sichem, and in the seventeenth Christopher Jegher did some excellent work after Rubens. In France the chief masters of the sixteenth century were Jean Cousin, whose ascribed designs are in the true spirit of the Renaissance, and Bernard Salomon (c.1550), the leading designer of Lyons. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the most important engravers belonged to the families Lesueur and Papillon. Jean Michel Papillon is an example of the careful minuteness of technique that characterized the declining art. He was the first to use the tougher boxwood in place of apple and pear, and wrote the first important Treatise on Engraving (1766). In Italy great masters of the Renaissance occasionally drew for woodcuts; as Titian, whose designs were engraved by Boldrini and others at Venice, and Leonardo, who illustrated Paccioli's De Proportione Divina (1509). But the art never became thoroughly acclimated, nor was there the same need for popular instruction by this means. CHIAROSCURO. A variety of wood-engraving which achieved fine results was the so-called chiaroscuro, which is derived from two or more printings of identical blocks in different shades of the same grave color, such as sepia or a soft warm gray. It owes less to the engraver than to the printer, upon whose work it chiefly depends for its effects of light and shade and gradations of tint. The designing may be done with a pen or brush and the effect resembles that of a wash drawing. Chiaroscuro engraving was probably invented at the beginning of the six teenth century by Jost de Negker at Augsburg. Excellent work was done in Germany by Hans Baldung and other artists, and the art was introduced into Italy by Ugo da Carpi, who practiced at Venice, his first print being dated 1518. It was a favorite means for the reproduction of masterpieces in painting, and attained the highest proficiency in Italy. The chief master in the latter half of the sixteenth century was Andrea Andreani, whose masterpiece was Mantegna's "Triumph of Cæsar." The last good chiaroscurist in Italy was Coriolani in the seventeenth century. In France the art was practiced with success by Nicholas Lesueur (1691-1764), some of whose work is most admirable in delicacy of execution, and in England by John Baptist Jackson (1701-80), who did very effective work, especially after the great Venetian painters. MODERN WOOD-ENGRAVING. The great difference between early and modern wood-engravings is that the latter is done on the end of the grain on the wood, which is sawed crosswise, instead of the side of the wood sawed lengthwise. The surface being therefore much harder, a it is done with graver instead of a knife. Boxwood, the hardest variety of wood and most regular in grain, is generally used instead of the ancient pear or apple. It is not certain by whom these new methods were invented, but they were first used with greatest success in England by Thomas Bewick (17531828), who is the real founder of modern woodengraving. The most characteristic feature of his work, which is indeed the essential feature of modern engraving, is the uniform use of the white line-the design being formed of the part cut away from the block, instead of the part left standing, as formerly. This practice was made feasible by the substitution of the graver for the knife, and was not invented by Bewick, as is commonly supposed. He possessed, moreover, a very remarkable originality of design, and his works possess a pathetic intensity which renders them singularly attractive, quite aside from their high technical merit. His best productions are the illustrations to British Quadrupeds (1790), British Birds (1797), and a large engraving, the "Chillingham Bull." Contemporary with Bewick, William Blake produced an original and an artistic set of illustrations, though defective in technique, for Thornton's edition of Vergil's Pastorals (1820). In the hands of Bewick's pupils the woodcut became a serious rival of line engraving in the illustration of important literary works. Charlton Nesbit and Luke Clennell practiced it with great merit, the former excelling in line, the latter in artistic feeling. Robert Branston, on the other hand, founded a school which imitated copper engraving, relying upon the black line rather than the white. John Thompson engraved, though with independence, after the designs of the line engraver John Thurston, and in the works of Orrin Smith and William Harvey wood-engraving lost its distinctive qualities. The illustrated newspapers and magazines, bringing the need of rapid production, caused a still further decline of the art. The engraver became a mere artisan. In vain did W. J. Linton endeavor to introduce the practice of rendering artists' drawings by lines conceived and arranged by the engraver himself. The influence of the American school (see below) failed to revive it, but finally led to a complete preference on the part of the public of the more accurate photographic processes. The revival of wood-engraving in Germany begins at the end of the eighteenth century with the two Ungers, father and son, professors in the Berlin Academy, whose work, however, was still done with the knife, and especially with their successors, Gubitz and Unzelmann. Öf very great influence were the blocks designed by Adolf Menzel for the illustration of different works on Frederick the Great, engraved by the brothers Vogel, Eduard Ketschmar, and others. Other prominent wood-engravers of the nineteenth century were Blasius Hofel in Vienna; Allgaier and Siegle, who engraved Kaulbach's Reynard the Fox (1863); Bürker and Gabner, the engravers of Ludwig Richter's designs; and especially, at the present time, Max Klinkicht in Freiburg. German wood-engraving is precise and careful in execution, but rather harsh in color. colored prints from woodcuts now so extensively produced in Germany are not an artistic success. The The founders of the modern French school were Charles Thompson, a pupil of John Thompson, and the Frenchmen Best and Brevière. During the reign of Louis Philippe important masters designed for woodcuts, such as Grandville, Gavarni, and Tony Johannot, and of very great influence upon its development was Gustav Doré (q.v.), whose illustrations occupied a number of engravers, among the best of whom were Pannemaker (fils), Ligny, and Tricon. Representative engravers of the present day are Lepère, Baude, Jonnard, and Jules Huyot, not to mention Florian (d.1900), who achieved remarkable effects of tone. The chief living master is probably Stéphan Pannemaker, whose style is as brilliant as it is grand and robust. Artistic dash, intelligent use of the graver, and the achievement of tone are in fact the strongest points of the French school, which at present enjoys a higher perfection than any other in Europe. THE AMERICAN SCHOOL. The earliest American work consisted almost entirely in the reproduction of English book illustrations for American reprints. The first artist of importance was Alexander Anderson (1775-1870), who engraved blocks after Holbein's Dance of Death, Bewick's British Quadrupeds, and other English works. He adopted the manner of Bewick, and his original blocks were the best engraved at that time outside of his master's immediate circle. The best wood-engraving of the first half of the nineteenth century was by Joseph Alexander Adams, whose original designs rank with the best English contemporaries. The Civil War in terfered for a time with the new magazines which now offered chief employment to the engravers. The best work of the period before 1860 is to be found in the refined, delicate cuts of A. V. R. Anthony, the detailed, careful illustrations of Henry Marsh, as in Harris's Insects Harmful to Vegetation (1862), and, especially, in the engravings of William James Linton (d. 1899), who came from England to America in 1868. In his writings, as well as his masterly work, ranking with the best ever done, he was the champion of the methods of Bewick against the manipulative methods of the new school. The last and most characteristic phase of the American development began in the years following 1870, in connection with the popular magazines, whose enormous circulation depended to a large extent upon their illustrations. The public demand being for the nearest possible reproduction of the originals, a school of engravers arose who accomplished this to a very remarkable extent-rendering the brush work and impasto of painting, the technical effects of etching, chalk drawing, and the like. This was rendered possible by photographing directly on the block the original, which was retained by the artist as a guide. The technical mastery acquired by the new school was soon employed in original work of a high order, especially in landscapes engraved from nature directly upon the block, and in portrait heads of great brilliancy and power. The recent perfection of photographic processes (see PHOTO-ENGRAVING) has, to some extent, removed the raison d'être of wood-engraving of the new school, and the great American engravers have returned to a more legitimate practice of the art. The head of the American school, and prob ably its most remarkable technician, is Timothy Cole. Another important exponent of modern methods was the late Frederick Juengling. Elbridge Kingsley is known for his fine landscapes directly from nature, while Gustav Kruell follows the methods of Linton. Other important names are W. B. Closson, who has done good work from nature; F. S. King, who imitated copper engraving with great success; and Frank French, known by his New England scenes. The technical processes of wood-engraving have in recent years been much improved both as regards the tools used in cutting the wood, such as the graver, chisels, etc., and the printing presses, the most perfect of which are in America. The process of electrotyping, by coating the woodcut with a thin film of metal, enables the printer to make an indefinite number of impressions, or by reproducing the block in metal to secure facsimiles for commercial purposes. For the important development of woodengraving and color printing in Japan, which lies outside of the sphere of the Western evolution, see JAPANESE ART. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Early treatises are those of Papillon (Paris, 1766), Heinecken (Leipzig, 1771), and Jansen (Paris, 1808); but really critical treatment began in the historical works of Heller (Bamberg, 1822), Ottley (London, 1846), and Chatto (ib., 1861). Among good modern histories are those of Delaborde (Paris, 1882), Woodbury (London, 1883), and Wessely, in his Geschichte der graphischen Künste (Leipzig, 1890); and especially Masters of Engraving, by W. J. Linton (London and New Haven, 1882), who united to a remarkable extent the qualities of scholarship with practical engraving. For the works of the old German school, consult Von Lützow, Geschichte des deutschen Kupfersticks und Holzschnitts (Berlin, 1889); Muther, Die deutsche Bücherillustration der Gothik und der Frührenaissance (Munich, 1884). For the American school, see Baker, American Engravers and Their Work (Philadelphia, 1875); Linton, History of Wood Engraving in America (ib., 1884). See also Hering, Anleitung zur Holzschneidekunst (Leipzig, 1873), and De Lostalot, Les procèdes de la gravure (Paris, 1882). WOODEN HORSE, THE. The treacherous device by which, according to the legend, the Greeks were introduced into Troy and captured the city. WOOD'FALL, HENRY SAMPSON (1739-1805). An English journalist and printer, born in Little Britain, London, and educated at Saint Paul's School. In 1758 he was made editor of the Public Advertiser, which the letters of Junius (q.v.), published in its columns between 1767 and 1772, brought into widespread notice. Woodfall declared that he had no personal acquaintance with the author of the letters and also, according to the statement of his son, that Sir Philip Francis was certainly not responsible for them. He published them in book form in 1772 and profited largely by their sale, although he was prosecuted by the Crown for libel on account of them. In 1793 he sold the Public Advertiser and passed the rest of his days in Chelsea, where he died. His son, GEORGE (1767-1844), also a printer, was born in London and was trained by his father, whose partner he was till the latter's retirement. He then set up in business for him self, and in 1840 admitted his son, Henry Dick, as partner. He was regarded as one of the most eminent printers of his day, and published many works of great importance, the best known being the 1812 edition of Junius's Letters. WOOD'FORD. A town in Essex, England, 8 miles northeast of Saint Paul's, London (Map: London, C 9). It lies in the picturesque Epping Forest district. Population, in 1901, 13,806. WOODFORD, STEWART LYNDON (1835-). An American lawyer and diplomat, born in New York City. He graduated at Columbia College in 1854; was admitted to the bar in 1857; served in the Federal Army from 1862 until 1865; was chief of staff for a time to Gen. Quincy A. Gilmore, in the Department of the South; and then was military commandant of Charleston and Savannah, and for his services received the brevet of brigadier-general of volunteers. In 1868-70 he was Lieutenant-Governor of New York; in 1780 was an unsuccessful candidate for the Governorship on the Republican ticket against John T. Hoffman; and in 1873-75 was a member of the National House of Representatives. From 1877 until 1883 he was United States District Attor ney for the Southern District of New York; then engaged in private practice, and in 1897 was sent as Minister to Spain. Upon the outbreak of the Spanish-American War (q.v.) in 1898 he returned to the United States. WOOD'GREEN. A municipal suburb of London, in Middlesex, 61⁄2 miles north of Saint Paul's Cathedral (Map: London, C 7). Population, in 1891, 25,831; in 1901, 34,183. An He WOOD'HEAD, GERMAN SIMS (1855-). English pathologist, born at Huddersfield. studied in Huddersfield College, Edinburgh University, and in Berlin and Vienna. From 1879 till 1890 he was engaged in teaching first anatomy and then pathology, and in carrying on original investigations in the Minto House School of Medicine, Edinburgh University, the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, and the Royal College of Physicians. In 1899 he was made professor of pathology in Cambridge University. His works include: Practical Pathology (1883); Pathological Mycology (with A. W. Hare, 1885); Bacteria and Their Products (1891); and Report to the Royal Commission on Tuberculosis (1895). WOOD-HEN. The weka (q.v.). WOOD HOUSE, ROBERT (1773-1827). An English mathematician and astronomer, born at Norwich. He studied at Caius College, Cambridge, where he received a fellowship in 1798. He became Lucasian professor of mathematics in 1820, Plumian professor of astronomy and experimental philosophy in 1822, and director of the observatory in 1824. His chief service to mathematical teaching was in clarifying the Continental methods of the infinitesimal calculus, in advocating the use of its notation, and in showing its application to physical problems. Among his works are: Plane and Spherical Trigonometry (1809; 5th ed. 1827); A Treatise on Isoperimetrical Problems and the Calculus of Variations (1810); A Treatise on Astronomy (1812); Physical Astronomy (1818); and Principles of Analytical Calculation (1803). on the disastrous Ticonderoga expedition of 1758, served under Bradstreet at Fort Frontenac, and in 1760 took part, as colonel, in General Amherst's campaign against Montreal. Subsequently he was president of the New York Provincial Congress in 1775-76; was appointed brigadier-general of militia in August, 1775; and in August, 1776, was fatally wounded at Brooklyn, L. I., after he had surrendered. A Journal kept by him during the Montreal expedition of 1760 was printed in the Historical Magazine for September, 1861. Consult: Luther R. Marsh, General Woodhull and His Monument (New York, 1848), and Henry Onderdonk, Jr., Nar rative of Woodhull's Capture and Death (New York, 1848). WOOD-IBIS. See IBIS; STORK. WOOD-LOUSE. An isopod crustacean of the family Oniscidae. The abdomen is very short, but restrial, and the respiratory organs are com is composed of six segments. Wood-lice are ter pletely infolded by perforated plates. They feed on decaying animal and vegetable matter. They roll themselves up into a ball, so as to exhibit only the plates of the back. Other popular names are 'pill-bug' (owing to the spherical form they assume when alarmed), sow-bug,' and 'armadillo.' See ISOPODA. WOODMEN OF AMERICA, MODERN. A fraternal and insurance order formed at Lyons, Iowa, in 1883, and chartered under the laws of Illinois in 1884. Divisions or branches are known as camps. The membership grew from 600 in 1884 to 210,000 in 1896. In 1902 it had 10,785 local camps and a total membership of 701,655. The order operates in Illinois, Minnesota, Nebraska, Wisconsin, Michigan, Kansas, North Dakota, South Dakota, Missouri, Indiana, and Ohio, but excludes from its operations the cities of Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, Saint Louis, and Cincinnati. The total disbursements to members from the date of organization to January 1, 1903, were $27,508,384. WOODMEN OF THE WORLD, THE. A fraternal and insurance order founded in 1890 at Omaha, Neb. The governing body is the Sovereign Camp of the World, the branches being known as local camps. White men alone are eligible. There is a Woman's Circle, which is in affiliation with the order, but of which Woodmen may become members. Women's circles meet in groves and all the circles and groves are governed by the Supreme Forest. Woodmen joining between 16 and 33 become life members in 30 years. The order has one sovereign camp, three head camps, and 5733 subordinate camps. The total membership in 1903 was 292,600. WOOD-NYMPH. Any of several small, beautiful noctuid moths of the genus Euthisanotia (or Eudryas), common in various parts of the United States, and noted as enemies of the grapevine. The beautiful wood-nymph (Euthisanotia grata) has creamy white front wings, with a glassy surface and with a wide brownishpurple stripe along the outer margin, which expand about 1 inches. The hind wings are clear, pale, ochre-yellow, with a brown band on the outer margin. The moth, which appears during midsummer, lays its eggs upon the leaves of grape and Virginia creeper, upon which evidently |