the popular romance of which he became the hero. According to this legend the lad Whittington went to London and found employment as a scullion. To the freight of an outgoing vessel he contributed his cat, which was sold for a large sum in Barbary. Meanwhile the boy, wearying of ill-usage, started from the city, but hearing the Bow bells, which seemed to say

Turn again, Whittington, Lord Mayor of London,

he went back to his work, soon, from the returning ship, received the price of his cat, married his lady fair, and, living happily, rose to the prophesied post. There is, however, no foundation for this tale nor for the accounts of his being made a knight and of his burning the King's bonds for large sums due him. The Lives of him by Lysons (1860) and Besant and Rice (1881 and 1894) are uncritical and treat the legends as facts. Both the facts and the legends can be found in Wheatley's edition of the History of Sir Richard Whittington (published for the Villon Society, London, 1885).

WHITT'REDGE, WORTHINGTON (1820-). An American portrait and landscape painter, born in Springfield, Ohio. After practicing portrait painting in Cincinnati from 1842 to 1849 he studied abroad, chiefly at Düsseldorf, under Andreas Achenbach. He also worked in Belgium and Holland, and in 1855 he went to Rome, residing there until his return to the United States in 1859. In 1874 he accompanied General John Pope on his Western tour of inspection, and brought back many sketches of Rocky Mountain scenery. In 1875-76 he was president of the National Academy of Design. He has spent the latter part of his life in Summit, N. J. Whittredge's preference is for landscape. A sympathetic feeling for nature is evident in all his work. He painted with fine feeling and purity of color, and without being vigorous in touch, he still invested all that he saw with a wholesome charm, Among his principal paintings are: "Old Hunting Ground" (1864); “View of the Rocky Mountains from the River Platte" (1868, Century Club, New York); "Trout Brook" (1875); "House on the Hudson River" (1863, Lenox Library, New York); and "Sheep Pasture by the Sea."

WHIT WORTH, CHARLES, Earl Whitworth (1752-1825). An English diplomat, born at Leybourne, and educated at Tunbridge. In 1786 he was appointed Minister to Poland, and two years later was transferred to Saint Petersburg. There he succeeded in obtaining the Russian adherence to the coalition against France, but upon the reconciliation between Paul I. and Napoleon he was dismissed by the Czar (1800). In 1802 he obtained the embassy to France, which he held under stormy conditions until the war broke out the next year.

WHITWORTH, SIR JOSEPH (1803-87). An English mechanical engineer, born at Stockport. He settled in Manchester in 1833 as a toolmaker, made numerous and valuable inventions in metal-working and other machinery, and while thus engaged learned to construct absolutely plane surfaces of metal and to determine surface and other inequalities by micrometric methods. The result was to raise the standard of workmanship. Whitworth played an important part

(See

in the securing of uniformity of screw threads, and his system of standard threads by which interchangeability and ready reproduction of parts was secured was widely employed. SCREW.) The request of the Government that Whitworth should design the machinery for the manufacture of military rifles was declined, but he was induced to undertake a series of experi ments to determine the most efficient construction of such weapons. He evolved a rifle with hexagonal barrel and small calibre (.45 inch) which fired an elongated projectile; but in spite of satisfactory tests it did not meet with the approval of the War Office, though ten years later a somewhat similar weapon was adopted. From small arms, Whitworth turned his attention to larger ordnance, and made numerous improvements, many of which also failed at the time to meet with the approval of the British authorities. His invention of compressed cast

steel for ordnance (q.v.) has been generally util ized in the construction of heavy guns. In 1869 Whitworth was made a baronet, after having received in the previous year the Albert Medal of the Society of Arts and the Legion of Honor of France. His large works at Manchester were made into a stock company in 1874, and in 1897 the company was united with the Elswick Works, founded by Sir William Armstrong (q.v.). Whitworth was a liberal benefactor of education; in 1868 he provided thirty scholarships in mechanics, and after his death his executors carried out his expressed wishes and turned over to Whitworth Park and Institute, Owens College, and other charitable and educational institutions in Manchester and elsewhere, funds ag gregating about $2,900,000. Whitworth was the author of papers in the journals of the engineering societies; of (with Wallis) The Industry of the United States in Machinery, Manufactures, and Useful and Ornamental Arts (1854); Miscellaneous Papers on Mechanical Subjects (1858); Miscellaneous Papers on Practical Subjects; and Guns and Steel (1873). Consult: Memoirs, in Proceedings of the Institutions of Civil Engineers (London, 1889); and contemporary volumes of proceedings of other learned societies and scientific journals.

WHITWORTH GUN. See ORDNANCE: GUNS, NAVAL.

An

WHOOPER. (1) A swan. (2) A crane. WHOOPING-COUGH, or PERTUSSIS. infectious and sometimes epidemic disease, mostly attacking children, especially in the spring and autumn. Its earliest symptoms, which usu ally appear five or six days after exposure to infection, are those of a common cold, as hoarseness, a watery discharge from the eyes and nose, oppression of the chest, a short, dry cough, and more or less feverishness. This stage, which is called the catarrhal, lasts a week or ten days, when the fever remits, and the cough begins to be followed by the peculiar whoop which characterizes the disease, and which is caused by the inspiration of air through the contracted cleft of the glottis. (See LARYNX.) The disorder may now be regarded as fully developed, and consists of paroxysms of severe coughing, which usually terminate in the expectoration of glairy mucus. or in vomiting. During the fit of coughing the face becomes red or livid, the eyes project, and

the child seizes some person or object for support. These paroxysms occur at uncertain intervals, but usually about every two hours, and between them the child returns to play, takes food with good appetite, and exhibits little or no sign of illness. The disease reaches its height at about the end of the fourth week, after which the paroxysms diminish in frequency, and the patient shows signs of improvement. The second stage may last from two to eight weeks, and is succeeded by what may be termed the convalescent stage, the duration of which is very variable. Pathology has failed to throw any direct light upon its special seat. The proportion of deaths to recoveries in cases of whooping-cough has not been satisfactorily determined, but when there is a severe epidemic the mortality due to this disease is often very great; the deaths, however, in the majority of cases, occur among the poorer classes. This mortality is, in reality, due rather to the bronchitis and pneumonia which are frequent complications of whooping-cough

than to the disease itself.

The diet should consist of milk and unstimulating farinaceous matters. The bowels should be kept moderately open. If the weather is cold, the child should be kept in the house with the temperature of the room about 60°. Slight counter-irritants may also be applied to the sur face of the chest. Nothing else is so serviceable in the last or convalescent stage as sea air. The medicinal treatment calls for the services of a physician.

WHORTLEBERRY. See HUCKLEBERRY. WHYDAH, hwid'à or hwï'dà. A seaport of Dahomey, Western Africa. It is on a lagoon 25 miles long and in a low region (Map: Africa, E 4). It was formerly a centre of the slave traffic, and has declined in importance, having now only some 20,000 inhabitants.

WHYMPER, hwim'per, EDWARD (1840—). An English traveler, born in London. He was trained as a draughtsman on wood. In 1860 he was sent by a London publisher to sketch the Alpine peaks. In 1861 he reached the summit of Mount Pelvoux and in 1864 ascended the Point des Ecrins. In 1865 he scaled the Matterhorn, until then found inaccessible. In 1867 and 1872 he visited Greenland. One result of his explorations was the collection of rare fossil plants now in the British Museum. His discovery of magnolia cones demonstrated the former existence of luxurious vegetation in that country. He visited the Ecuadorian Andes in 1879-80, and succeeded in reaching the summit of Chimborazo, a feat which had been unsuccessfully attempted by Humboldt and others. During this journey he discovered the Andean glaciers and made further collections of fossil, plant, and animal specimens. In addition to his Scrambles Amongst the Alps in the Years 1860-69 (1871; illustrated by himself), he described his travels in Travels Among the Great Andes of the Equator (1892); Chamonix and Mont Blanc (1896); and Zermatt and the Matterhorn (1897).

WHYTE, VIOLET. See STANNARD, HENRIETTA ELIZA VAUGHAN.

WHYTE'-MEL/VILLE, GEORGE JOHN. See MELVILLE, GEORGE JOHN WHYTE.

WICHERN, vik'ērn, JOHANN HINRICH (180881). The founder of home missions in Ger

many. He was born at Hamburg, studied theology at Göttingen and Berlin, and, settling in his native city, devoted himself to missionary work among the poor. He started a Sundayschool which proved very successful, and in 1833 opened his Rauhes Haus (q.v.). Wichern traveled through Germany, preaching and establishing hospitals, schools, homes, and rescue stations. Through his exertions the Protestant synod at Wittenberg in 1848 appointed a central committee for home missions. In 1851 the Prussian Government made him inspector of prisons and houses of correction, and in 1858 general superintendent. In 1872 disease forced him to retire from office. He published: Die innere Mission der deutschen evangelischen Kirche (1849); Die Behandlung der Verbrecher und entlassenen Sträflinge (1853); Der Dienst der Frauen in der Kirche (1858).

WICHERT, VIK'ĕrt, ERNEST (1831-1902). A German dramatist and novelist, born at Insterburg. With his play Unser General York (1858) Wichert won his first success, and from that time produced both plays and novels which established his reputation as a sound playwright and interesting story-teller. Licht und Schatten (1861), Di Realisten (1874), and Im Dienst der Pflicht (1897) are among his dramas. Considerable success attended his comedy EinSchritt vom Wege (1871), also Biegen oder brechen (1874) and Als Verlobte empfehlen sich. His volumes of fiction include: Ein hässlicher Mensch (1868); Die Arbeiter (1873); Die Taube auf dem Dache (1892); and Die Schwestern (1896).

WICHITA, wich'i-tå. A tribe of Caddoan stock (q.v.), formerly ranging over the country between the Washita and Upper Red Rivers, including the Wichita Mountains, in southern Oklahoma, and now gathered in a reservation on the north side of Washita in the vicinity of Anadarko. According to tradition, they, as well as their confederates, the Waco (q.v.) and Tawaconi, are direct offshoots of the Pawnee (q.v.), all these tribes speaking the same language with but slight dialectic differences. They call themselves Kitikitish and sometimes Tawéhash, of which their popular name may be a derivative. By the French they were called Pani Piqué, "Tattooed Pawnee,' their common designation among other tribes being "Tattooed People,' in allusion to the tribal custom of tattooing upon the face, arms, and breast, particularly among the women. Like all the Caddoan tribes, the agricultural and semi-sedentary, occupying villages of large dome-shaped houses built of grass laid over a framework of poles. On temporary outings they used the ordinary skin tipi. They had a number of interesting ceremonials, most of which they still retain, including a gift dance, a thanks giving or green corn dance, and a great ceremonial foot race in which every one able to run participated. They were peaceable and industrious and are one of the few tribes which have

Wichita were

always kept peace with the whites.

Their earliest migration appears to have been up the Red or Canadian River from Arkansas or Louisiana. They are identical with the people of Quivira visited by Coronado in 1542. About 1780 they were living about the present Wichita Falls, Tex. At a later period they fixed their

village on the north fork of Red River, in the Wichita Mountains, where they were visited by a Government expedition in 1834, resulting in a treaty of friendship the next year, soon after which they removed to the site of the present Fort Sill. In 1859 they were assigned to their present reservation, but on the outbreak of the Civil War were compelled to take refuge in Kansas, camping about the present site of Wichita on the Arkansas, where they remained until 1867. They are now allotted citizens, and, being self-supporting and industrious, would be in fairly prosperous condition but for the dissipation brought among them by the opening of the country to white settlement. From an estimated total of over 3000 in 1804 the confederated

bands have decreased to 692 in 1872 and about 360 in 1901.

WICHITA. The county-seat of Sedgwick County, Kan., 228 miles southwest of Kansas City, on the Arkansas River, and on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, the Missouri Pacific, the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, the Saint Louis and San Francisco, the Wichita and Western, the Wichita and Colorado, and other railroads (Map: Kansas, E 4). It is well laid out and has attractive residences, imposing business blocks, and fine public buildings. The city is the seat of Fairmount College (Congregational), opened in 1892; Albertus Magnus University (Roman Catholic), opened in 1900; the Friends' University; Kansas College of Osteopathy; Lewis Academy; and All Hallows Academy. The Public Library has 7000 volumes. Other prominent institutions include the Martha Washington Home, Orphans' Home, Children's Home, and the Wichita and Saint Francis hospitals. The United States Government building, county court-house, city hall, high school building, and the Scottish Rite Masonic Cathedral are noteworthy. Riverside Park, the most prominent of the public parks, contains 146 acres. Wichita is favored with excellent transportation facilities, and has considerable commercial and industrial importance. The region is very fertile, and is known for its large farming, dairying, and stock-raising interests. There are extensive packing establishments and stock yards, flouring mills, foundries and machine shops, stove works, grain elevators, implement manufactories, car shops, etc. A large wholesale and jobbing trade is carried on here. Under the charter of 1886, the government is vested in a mayor, chosen biennially, and a unicameral council. The majority of the subordinate officials are appointed by the mayor, subject to the confirmation of the council. The board of education, however, is elected by popu

lar vote. Wichita was settled in 1870, and was incorporated the following year. Population, in 1890, 23,853; in 1900, 24,671.

WICHITA MOUNTAINS. A group of mountains in the southern part of Oklahoma between the Washita and Red rivers (Map: Oklahoma, E 4). They form a western outlier of an interrupted system of ancient, denuded rock masses extending across Indian Territory into southern Arkansas, and rise abruptly from the surrounding plain to a height of nearly 1000 feet above it. The group consists of a number of isolated conical granite peaks surrounded by outcrops of folded Paleozoic strata.

WICK. A seaport, capital of Caithness, Scotland, at the mouth of Wick Water, and at the head of Wick Bay, 18%1⁄2 miles south of John o' Groat's House (Map: Scotland, E 1). Wick is the headquarters of the herring fishery and its kindred industries in Scotland. There are two harbors and an extensive breakwater. Population (Parliamentary borough), in 1901, 7881. WICKED BIBLE. See BIBLE, CURIOUS EDI

TIONS OF.

WICK'FIELD, AGNES. The patient daughter of Miss Betsy Trotwood's solicitor, in Dickens's David Copperfield. She marries David after the death of his child-wife, Dora. Her father is a well-meaning but not very strong-minded man, whose unfortunate taste for drink Uriah Heep cultivates in order to ruin him.

WICK'LOW. A maritime county of the Province of Leinster, Ireland, bounded by the Irish Sea and the provinces of Wexford, Carlow, Kildare, and Dublin (Map: Ireland, E 4). Area, 781 square miles. The land rises abruptly from the sea, and a large part of the county is mountainous and barren. About one-half is pasture land, and cattle-raising is the chief occupation, though some oats and potatoes are raised. Population, in 1901, 60,824. County town, Wicklow.

German author, born probably at Colmar, in WICKRAM, vikʼråm, JÖRG (?-c.1560). A Alsatia, where he founded in 1549 a Meistersinger school. The only other event of his life of which

we have definite record is that in 1555 he became best of his dramas are Der verlorne Sohn (1540) town clerk at Burgheim in the Breisgau. The and Tobias (1551). He is better known, howGerman Reformation period, and in his tales he ever, as the first writer of prose fiction in the expressed the new social ideas which were prevalent. Aside from his novels, Ritter Galay aus Schottland (1539). Der Knabenspiegel (1554), Der irrereitende Pilger (1556), and Goldfaden (1557), he published a collection of witty tales entitled Das Rollwagen-Büchlein (1555), which contains his best-known and most interesting work. Consult Scherer, deutschen Prosaromans und Jörg Wickram von Die Anfänge des Colmar (Strassburg, 1877).

WICK'STEED, PHILIP HENRY (1844-). An English Unitarian clergyman and lecturer, born Manchester, and New College, London, and in at Leeds. He was educated at University College, 1874-97 had charge of the Little Portland Street Chapel, London. In 1887 he began to lecture for the University Extension movement, speakpublications include: ing principally on poetry and economics. His Dante: Six Sermons (1880); The Alphabet of Economic Science (1888); The Coördination of the Laws of Distribution; Henrik Ibsen (1892); and translation and notes to Dante's Paradiso (Temple edition). WICKY. A North American shrub. KALMIA.

See

WIC LIF, JOHN (c.1320-84). A noted English reformer, often styled the Morning Star of the Reformation.' He was born probably near Richmond, in Yorkshire. The known facts of his life are singularly few and meagre. He seems to have belonged to a well-to-do family of the lower nobility and to have been sent as a youth to the University of Oxford. He became a fellow and

straightforward word of God. The description of the 'persone of a town' in the prologue to the Canterbury Tales corresponds very closely to the ideal set forth in Wiclif's instructions to these preachers.

What the heresies of Wiclif were is best learned from the list of charges brought forward at the several trials. They may all be regarded as growing out of the one fundamental notion of a divine law-lex Christi-superior to all earthly laws and not intrusted to any human person or institution. It is obvious that in the last resort this divine law is only to be found in the individual conscience using all the means, intellectual, spiritual, and emotional, that it can command. This was Wielif's real and sufficient offense. It appears in every detail of the charges. In speculative theology the test came, as it continued to do throughout the Reformation period, on the question of the sacramental observances, and especially of the Eucharist. Realist as he claimed to be, Wiclif could not accept the doctrine that in the consecration of the elements the accidents were separated from the substance they represented, and he therefore had to deny the doctrine of transubstantiation. True, he tried every device of the subtlest logic of the schools to prove that he believed in an actual presence of the body of Christ in the Host, but his definitions were vague enough to admit the widest differences of interpretation, and this would not do. His view of the Church was that it consisted of the body of the followers of Christ, and that therefore it could not be controlled by any person or group of persons, such as the Pope and the cardinals. Authority in the Church depended upon the purity with which those who claimed authority lived up to the law of Christ. If they violated that law, they forfeited all claim to obedience. It was the business of temporal authorities to see to it that this law be obeyed, and to recall the rulers of the Church to obedience if they failed. The control of the temporalities of the Church lay in the hand of the civil rulers, who ought to withdraw them if they were abused.

However subversive of existing institutions these principles of Wiclif might be, they would, perhaps, have been overlooked if he had not aroused the bitterest personal enmities by his unsparing application of them to the evils of society. Especially his denunciations of the mendicant Orders brought into the field against him a power that few could in the long run withstand. The episcopal order felt itself threatened by the growing contempt for organized authority, and was only too ready to connect the social upheavals of the time (1381) with this religious agitation. The sympathy of the ruling classes was diverted from Wiclif in his last years, but it is clear that his teaching was held in reverence by many of the lower and middle classes. 'Lollardry,' as the following of Wielif came to be called, was doubtless very widely spread and maintained itself for about a generation after Wiclif's death as a powerful religious and political factor in the English people. The most active work in collecting and editing Wiclif's writings has been done under the auspices of the Wiclif Society, which is still engaged in clearing up the evidence as to the reformer's life and work. Consult: Lechler, Johann von

Wiclif und die Vorgeschichte der Reformation (Leipzig, 1873; Eng. trans., London, 1884); Burrows, Wiclif's Place in History (2d ed., London, 1884); Poole, Wycliffe and Movements for Reform (ib., 1889); Trevelyan, The Age of Wycliffe (ib., 1898); Sargeant, John Wyclif (New York, 1893). See LOLLARDS.

WICOPY. See LEATHERWOOD.

WIDDIN, or WIDIN, vid′in. An ancient town and the capital of a department in the Principality of Bulgaria, situated on the right bank of the Danube, about 100 miles west-northwest of Sofia (Map: Balkan Peninsula, D 3). It is surrounded by marshes and its inaccessibility formerly gave it great strategical importance. There are still preserved the ancient walls and the citadel. A new quarter is growing up along the river. Widdin manufactures gold and silverware, tobacco, and spirits. Population, about 15,000. Widdin was a very strong Turkish fortress and constituted an important strategie point in the Russo-Turkish war.

WIDE, WIDE WORLD, THE. A popular novel by Susan Warner, under the name of Elizabeth Wetherell (1850).

a

WIDGEON, or WIGEON (from OF. vigeon, widgeon, from Lat. vipo, sort of small crane). A river-duck of the genus Mareca, allied to the gadwall and teal, and common throughout the Arctic regions. The true widgeon (Marcca penelope) is seen in temperate latitudes only in winter, when it flies in large flocks, and is a favorite with gunners. Its whole length is about 19 inches. The forehead and top of the head in the male are white; the cheeks and hind part of the neck

reddish chestnut; the BILL OF A WIDGEON. upper parts grayish a, profile; b, upper side; e showing serrawhite, crossed with ir- under side; tions. (Mareca Americana.) regular zigzag lines of black; the tail nearly black; the wing-coverts white, tipped with black; the primaries dark brown; speculum green, edged with black; the throat pale rufous; the breast and belly white. The female is very different, the head and neck rufous brown, speckled with dark brown; the back varied with two shades of brown, darker in the centre, and paler in the edges of the feathers. Widgeons feed during the daytime, and chiefly on water-plants. The note is a shrill whistle. whence its French name siffleur, and the English names, 'whew duck' and 'whewer.' The American widgeon or baldpate (Mareca Americana) is much like the European, but the upper parts are finely waved transversely with black and reddish brown; the under parts are mostly white; the top of the head is almost white; the wing-coverts are white, the greater tipped with black. It is common in winter in the interior of the United States, and its flesh is highly esteemed. It breeds regularly from Minnesota northward, and occasionally much farther south. See DUCK.