Souls (1896). He has also published on religious themes: The Upper Room (1895); The Mind of the Master (1896); The Potter's Wheel (1897); Companions of the Sorrowful Way (1898); Doctrines of Grace (1900); and The Life of the Master (1901).

WATSON, JOHN CRITTENDEN (1842-). An American naval officer, born in Frankfort, Ky. He was educated at the United States Naval Academy, became a master in the navy in 1861, and served throughout the Civil War, after July, 1862, as a lieutenant, participating in the bombardment of Forts Jackson and Saint Philip, in the passage of the Vicksburg batteries, and in the battle of Mobile Bay. After the war he was assigned to various routine duties, both on sea and shore, became a captain in 1887 and a commodore ten years later, and in the SpanishAmerican War commanded the blockading squadron on the North Cuban coast from May to June, 1898, when he was made commander-in-chief of the Eastern Squadron, which was to threaten the Spanish coast and thus force the return of the Spanish fleet, under Camara, bound for Manila. News of the movement having reached Spain, Camara was recalled before Watson could execute his orders, and Watson subsequently resumed charge of the blockade of the northern coast of Cuba. He was then commandant of the Mare Island Navy Yard from October, 1898, to May, 1899, was promoted to the rank of rearadmiral in March, 1899, was commander-in-chief of the naval forces on the Asiatic Station from June, 1899, to April, 1900, and in October, 1900, became president of the Naval Examining Board.

WATSON, MUSGRAVE LEWTHWAITE (1804-47). An English sculptor, born near Carlisle and educated at Raughton School. Upon the death of his father in 1823 he went to London, where he met Flaxman, through whose influence he entered the schools of the Royal Academy. He studied in Rome under Chantrey and Behnes, whom he assisted with his statue of Dr. Babing

ton. His other statues include those of Queen Elizabeth, Flaxman, Cunningham, and Nelson, a statuette of Chaucer, a large group of eleven figures representing Dr. Archibald Cameron tending the wounded on Culloden battlefield, and a terra-cotta alta-relievo called "Little Children Come Unto Me."

WATSON, RICHARD (1737-1816). Bishop of Llandaff. He was born at Heversham, West Moreland, England; graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1759; obtained a fellowship, 1760; was appointed professor of chemistry, 1764; regius professor of divinity, Cambridge, and rector of Somersham, 1771; Archdeacon of Ely, 1779; and Bishop of Llandaff, 1782. He was a brilliant and versatile man, noted for his ability to undertake almost any subject. He is now chiefly remembered for his Apology for Christianity, in a Series of Letters, addressed to Edward Gibbon, Esq. (1776); and his Apology for the Bible, in a series of Letters, addressed to Thomas Paine (1796). His autobiography, edited by his son, appeared at London in 1817.

ence, 1800. He joined the Methodist new connection (1803), returned to the regular Wesleyan connection, and edited the Liverpool Courier, (1808); was one of the secretaries of the missionary society in London (1816); and was elected president of the Conference in 1826. He published: A Defense of the Methodist Missions in the West Indies (1817); Remarks on the Eternal Sonship of Christ (against Adam Clarke, 1818); Theological Institutes (1823-29; new ed. 1877, one of the standard works in Wesleyan divinity); Biblical and Theological Dictionary (1831); and Life of Rev. John Wesley (1831). His works were edited with a Life by Thomas Jackson (12 vols., London, 1834-37; new ed., 13 vols., 1847).

was

WATSON, ROBERT SPENCE (1837-). An English economist and solicitor. He born at Gateshead and was educated at the Friends' School, York, and University College, London. From 1890 to 1902 he was president of the National Liberal Federation. Although his writings and public activities cover a wide field, he is best known from his work as an economist. His publications include: History of English Rule and Policy in South Africa (1879); Irish Land Law Reform (1881); Boards of Conciliation and Arbitration (1886); The Proper Limits of Obedience to the Law (1887); The Peaceable Settlement of Labor Disputes (1889); Labor, Past, Present, and Future (1889); and The Recent History of Industrial Progress (1891).

WATSON, SERENO (1826-92). An American botanist, born at East Windsor Hill, Conn., and educated at Yale and the medical department of the University of New York. From 1868 to 1869 he was botanist to the geological exploration on the 40th parallel under Clarence King. After Dr. Asa Gray's death in 1888, he was made curator of the Gray Herbarium at Harvard. The greater part of the botanical work of the geological surveys west of the 100th meridian was given to him by Professor Ferdinand V. Hayden. He was a fellow of the National Academy of Science. He wrote Botany of California (with Professor Gray and W. H. Brewer, 1876); Bibliographical Index to North American Botany (1878); Contributions to American Botany (1873-91); and with J. M. Coulter revised and extended Gray's Manual of Botany (1890).

WATSON, THOMAS (1557-92). An English poet, born probably in London. He studied at Oxford, but left without a degree and nominally took up law in London. In 1581 he visited Paris, where he made the acquaintance of Sir Francis Walsingham, one of his future patrons. Watson's most interesting verse is contained in the Passionate Century of Love (1582) and the Tears of Fancy (posthumous, 1593), two collections of sonnets taken largely from the French and the Italian. The themes of several of these sonnets seem to have been worked over by Shakespeare in his more famous sonnets. Watson was among the best Latinists of his time. He translated into Latin the Antigone of Sophocles (1581) and Tasso's Aminta (1585), and composed original Latin verse, much of which has never been published. For his English poems, consult Arber, English Reprints (London, 1870; reissue, 1895).

WATSON, WILLIAM (1858-). An English poet, born at Burley-in-Wharfedale, Yorkshire. His Epigrams of Art (1884) was his first book to attract attention. During the following year he published in the National Review a series of sonnets entitled Ver Tenebrosum, in which he attacked the English policy in Egypt. In 1892 his poem "Wordsworth's Grave" gave him considerable fame, and in the same year he wrote "Lachrymæ Musarum," a fine ode in memory of Tennyson. His verse is careful, delicate, and sure in workmanship and is reflective in tone. His sonnets in the Purple East contain some of his most significant work. Among his later works are: Lyric Love (1892); The Eloping Angels (1893); Excursions in Criticism (1893); Odes and Other Poems (1894); The Father of the Forest (1895); The Purple East (1896); The Year of Shame (1896), a forceful and ringing indictment of England's policy in the Orient, particularly in the Armenian difficulty; The Hope of the World (1897); and Collected Poems (1898).

WATT (named in honor of James Watt). The practical unit of power (q.v.) or activity. The C. G. S. unit of power is 1 erg per second, and the watt is 10, of these units, or 1 joule per second. A horse-power is 33,000 foot pounds per minute and therefore equals 746 watts approximately; 1 watt = 0.0013406 horse-power. The kilowatt, or 1000 watts, is the unit in ordinary use, and is employed, even in countries which have not adopted the metric system, for the rating of electric machinery. See C. G. S. SYS

TEM.

WATT, JAMES (1736-1819). A British mechanical engineer, famous for his improvements on the steam engine, which were so important and fundamental as often to lead to his being styled its inventor. He was born at Greenock, Scotland, the son of a carpenter and merchant, who also at times held such town offices as treasurer and chief magistrate. His early education was obtained at the town schools, which, however, he was unable to attend regularly on account of ill health. At the same time he was learning the use of wood and metal working tools and constructing ingenious models and original pieces of mechanism. He early evinced a taste for mathematics and a fondness for reading which he maintained throughout his life. When eighteen years old Watt went to Glasgow to learn the trade of an instrument-maker, but after a short time proceeded to London, where he followed this calling for a year. In 1756 he returned to Glasgow, but experienced difficulty in starting in business on his own account, owing to the opposition of workers in the same trade. He became connected with the university, however, as an instrument-maker, and remained until 1760, when he became established independently, working also at times as a civil engineer. While at the university he became acquainted with the various professors and students and received from them instruction and suggestions. As early as 1759 he turned his attention to the construction of a steam carriage, and in 1764 he was called upon to repair the model of the Newcomen engine in the cabinet of the university. Studying this machine thoroughly, he soon realized its defects and lack of efficiency, and determined that

the losses of heat in the cylinder could be corrected, and the imperfect method of condensing the steam could be improved. Accordingly he contrived an independent condenser where the steam was exhausted and condensed after doing its work on the piston, instead of being condensed by a jet of cold water in the cylinder, as was done in the Newcomen engine. To develop the invention Watt secured the financial cooperation of Dr. John Roebuck, the founder of the Carron Iron Works, and in 1765 constructed a small engine, which was operated with some success. Watt was in the meanwhile spending all of his resources, but at the same time making considerable progress in engine-building, until financial misfortunes deprived him of the cooperation of Dr. Roebuck. At this time (1767), fortunately, an enterprising manufacturer, Matthew Boulton (q.v.), joined with Watt and their names were subsequently associated in the manufacture and improvement of steam engines that resulted from the partnership. In 1774 a steam engine was completed which was noteworthy in that it embodied the essential features of the modern steam engine. So much time had been spent in the development of the engine that in 1775 an act to prolong the life of Watt's original patent until 1800 was passed by Parliament, and during this interval other valuable patents were acquired and many engines were manufactured and disposed of to mines and collieries. Next to the external condensation principle the most important features were: The making of the engine of having the steam act only on one side of the double-acting by the addition of valves, instead piston, which was then returned to its original position by a counterweight; and the use of steam expansively. With the double-acting engine by the use of a fly-wheel it was possible to have continuous rotary motion through the medium of a crank, which, while claimed as an invention of Watt, was actually patented by one Pickard, a former employee of his, and disposed of to a Mr. Washbrough of Bristol. To meet this deficiency Watt contrived various devices, of which the 'sun and planet' gear wheels were the most successful, for changing the reciprocating into rotary motion. The application of the centrif ugal governor to the steam engine, the invention of the water gauge, and the mercury steam gauge, are but a few of the many improvements contributed by Watt to the steam engine. With his many improvements and additions to the steam engine it was somewhat singular that Watt did not employ steam at high pressures, as was suggested by Trevithick and others, and which was the next important step in the development of the steam engine. The invention of the steam hammer naturally resulted from his work on the steam engine, but the copying press, a spiral oar or screw propeller, the discovery of the composition of water, a machine for reproducing sculpture, and numerous physical instruments and methods show the diversity of his researches and the breadth of his talents.

Retiring from active business in 1800, he turned over to his two sons his interest in the large and remunerative business which had been built up at Soho by Boulton's effort. He died at Heathfield, in Staffordshire, on August 25, 1819. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1784; a fellow of the Royal So

ciety of London in 1785; and in 1808 a corresponding member, and afterwards a foreign member of the Institute of France. The University of Glasgow conferred on him the degree of LL.D. in 1806. A statue, the funds for which had been raised by public subscription, was erected at Birmingham, while a national monument was placed in Westminster Abbey, on which an appropriate inscription written by Lord Berryham was inscribed.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Smiles, Lives of Boulton and Watt (London, 1865); Muirhead, Origin and Progress of the Mechanical Inventions of James Watt (London, 1854); id., Life of Watt (ib., 1858); Thurston, The Growth of the Steam Engine (New York, 1879).

WATT, ROBERT (1774-1819). A Scotch bibliographer and physician, born near Stewarton, Ayreshire. From 1793 to 1797 he studied for the ministry at Glasgow, but afterwards studied medicine at Edinburgh and practiced in Paisley and Glasgow. In 1811 he removed to Glasgow and lectured there very successfully, afterwards becoming physician to the Glasgow Infirmary and president of the faculty of physicians and surgeons. His writings include the valuable Bibliotheca Britannica, posthumously published (1819-24) by his sons, who had aided him in the work.

He

WATTEAU, vå'to', ANTOINE (1684-1721). A celebrated French genre painter, the most original talent of the French school in the eighteenth century, the painter par excellence of the 'fêtes galantes.' He was born at Valenciennes, October 10, 1684, the son of a roof-slater, and was first instructed there by Jacques Albert Gérin. He then made his way to Paris, where, after much painting of a commercial character, he entered the school of Claude Gillot, at that time the most reputed designer of ornaments. afterwards became an assistant to Claude Andran, custodian of the Luxembourg, where, besides acquiring the delicate technique of the prevailing decorative panel painting, Watteau was afforded the opportunity of studying the great allegories of Rubens, thereby greatly improving his coloring. Anxious to visit Italy, he competed for the Prix de Rome in 1709, but obtained only the second prize. He then resolved to petition for a special royal stipend, and hung two pictures in a passageway of the Academy, where they were seen by La Fosse, the director, who induced the young master to stand for the reception into the Academy (1712). His presentation picture, which, however, he did not produce until five years later, was the famous "Embarkation for the Isle of Cythera" (1717, Louvre), a replica of which, richer in detail and more harmonious on the whole, is in the Royal Palace at Berlin. Of the master's few works approaching in excellence this his chief production, the most noteworthy is "Les plaisirs du bal" (Dulwich Gallery, England), a replica of which is in the new royal palace

near Potsdam.

Afflicted with pulmonary consumption, this ingenious delineator of gay festivals was of a melancholy and restless disposition. He died at Nogent-Sur-Marne, July 21, 1721. His last important work was the famous sign for Gersaint's art store, now in the Royal Palace, Berlin. Next

to the Louvre, the La Caze collection of which contains "Gilles," "L'Indifférent," "The Cunning Woman," "Assembly in a Park," and five others, Watteau may be best studied in Berlin and Potsdam. In the Berlin Museum may be seen "Love in French Comedy," "Love in Italian Comedy," and "The Collation," while nineteen examples are in the various royal palaces, notably "The Village Bride" (c.1715), at Sans Souci, with more than one hundred figures. The Dresden Gallery contains "Company on a Lawn" and "Conversation on a Terrace," while in Lon don are preserved a "Concert Champêtre" and "Village Fête," "Rendezvous," "Music Lesson,” "Lovers Surprised," in Buckingham Palace, and

and others in Sir Richard Wallace's collection. The engravings from Watteau's works comprise more than five hundred and sixty plates, including many by famous masters. For his biography, consult: Cellier (Valenciennes, 1867), Dohme, in Kunst und Künstler, iii. (Leipzig, 1880), Volbehr (Hamburg, 1885), Hannover (Berlin, 1889), Dargenty (Paris, 1891), Mantz (ib., 1892), Rosenberg (Bielefeld, 1896), and Staley (London, 1903). Consult also: Goncourt, Catalogue raisonné de l'œuvre d'Antoine Watteau (Paris, 1875); id., L'art du XVIII. siècle (ib., 1883); and Pater, "A Prince of Court Painters," a luminous and sympathetic study, in Imaginary Portraits (London, 1887).

WATTENBACH, vät'en-bȧG, WILHELM (1819) 97). A German historian and paleographer. He was born at Rantzau, in Holstein, and studied in 1837-42 at the Universities of Bonn, Göttingen. and Berlin. In 1862 he was called to the University of Heidelberg as professor of history, and in 1873 to Berlin. Wattenbach's works were all solid contributions to the science of history. The following are the most important: Beiträge zur Geschichte der christlichen Kirche in Böhmen (1849); Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Miltelalter (1859); Anleitung zur griechischen Pa läographie (1867); Anleitung zur lateinischen Paläographie (1869); Das Schriftiesen im Mit telalter (1871); and Geschichte des römischen Papsttums (1876). He directed the Monumenta Germania Historica after 1872.

WATTENSCHEID, vät'en-shit. A town of the District of Arnsberg, Prussia, four miles west of Bochum. Population, in 1895, 15,353; in 1900, 20,295.

WAT'TERS, WILLIAM (1751-1827). A Methodist Episcopal minister. He was born in Baltimore County, Md., entered the Philadelphia Conference, 1773, and labored in Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia. He bore

the distinction of being the first American-born Methodist minister. Owing to ill health, his labor was somewhat intermittent, but uniformly successful. He published A Short Account of the Christian Experience and Ministerial Labors of William Watters (Alexandria, 1806). Consult D. A. Watters, The First American Itinerant of Methodism, William Watters (1898).

WATTERSON, HENRY (1840-). An American journalist, born in Washington, D. C. He was educated for the most part privately, entered journalism in Washington as editorial writer for the States and general newspaper worker, served in the Confederate Army in 186162 as private soldier and aide-de-camp succes