includes reservoirs, tanks, and standpipes, and more rarely even the pumping plant. The pipe system consists of one or more trunk mains and numerous branches and sub-branches, continually diminishing in size. Pipes are commonly divided into mains and services, the former including all the pipes laid in the streets and the latter the small pipes laid from the street mains to the several buildings supplied. A trunk line which simply feeds other street pipes, but no service pipes, is called a supply main. The latter term is also applied to pipe lines which convey water from a source of supply to the distributing system or to a reservoir feeding the latter. Where water is pumped through such a pipe line it is called a force main. Mains are most commonly of cast iron. Wood is also used. Wroughtiron pipe, coated and lined with cement, was extensively used some years ago, but most of it has been replaced with cast iron, on account of the frequent failures which occurred. Steel pipes made from thin plates, riveted both circumferentially and longitudinally, have been used for large supply and force mains since about 1890, superseding the wrought-iron pipe of an earlier date. (See PIPES.) The size of main pipes depends upon the volume and velocity of the water conveyed. Cast-iron pipes range from 4 to 48 inches in diameter, with occasional sizes up to 72 inches. Steel and wood supply mains and steel force mains may be built of almost any size. Bored wood pipes are generally confined to relatively small sizes. Pipes which are to afford fire protection should never be less than four inches in diameter, and that size should be restricted to a few hundred feet on a short street with only one fire hydrant. In the best distributing systems the area served is gridironed with pipes of liberal size, so arranged that any section may be fed from several directions and pipes in case of heavy local draughts for extinguishing fires. Service pipes are most commonly of lead or wrought iron. Lead is more expensive than iron, but its flexibility, smooth interior surface, relative non-corrosiveness, and great durability are in its favor. Its chief objection, aside from high first cost, is the ease with which it decomposes when exposed to certain waters. (See Quality, above.) Plain wrought-iron pipe corrodes so rapidly as to be out of the question. Galvanized, or zinc-coated, wrought-iron pipe is fairly durable when used for some waters, but corrodes so rapidly with others as to become almost filled with rust after only a few years. Among the various other methods of treating wrought-iron pipe, besides galvanizing, a japan, or baked varnish, coating has been employed of late. Wrought-iron service pipes are quite frequently lined with lead, tin, or cement to avoid corrosion and clogging and to give the smooth inner surface which is a quality of such materials. VALVES are used in distributing systems to control the flow of water to and through the mains and from the mains to the house services. The latter are generally called corporation cocks, and are set at or near the curb, with a service box for protection and access. The usual type of valve consists of either a disk or wedge, which is lifted vertically or slid horizontally by means of a screw rod and proper gearing. The latter, in the case of large sizes, may be worked by hydraulic pressure from the water main in which

the valve is set. Valves are also operated by electricity, particularly when it is desired to open or shut them from a distance. A free use of valves throughout a distributing system contributes greatly to the reliability of the waterworks service and the ease of making repairs to the pipe system. Check valves close against a backward flow of water and are used on pumping mains and for the protection of meters against back pressure. Reducing valves are automatic devices for relieving the lower levels of a city from excessive pressure where proper division into high and low service is impracticable. The Venturi principle (see WATER METERS) is occasionally profited by to reduce the cost of valves on large mains. That is to say, a 48-inch main may be gradually contracted to 36 inches, and a valve of that size placed, then the main be increased by degrees to its former size. A slight loss of pressure, only, will result, and where there is pressure enough and to spare a considerable sum of money may be saved.

HYDRANTS consist of a valve set at or near the curb line, on a branch pipe. A vertical tube or barrel extends from the valve to and generally above the ground level, with one and more often two or more nozzles for the attachment of fire hose. Hydrants should rarely if ever

Cap

Nozzle Closed

be placed more than Steamer Nozzle 500 feet apart, and in closely built business sections may need to be much closer together.

Case

Barrel

Valve Rod

Wedge-Shaped Gate Valve with Bronze Face

Inlet from Water Main

METERS are selfregistering devices for measuring the quantity of water supplied to a whole city, a section of it, or a single consumer. They afford the most equitable if not the only fair means for dividing the cost of the water service between the several consumers, and are most efficient agents for the detection of leaks and the prevention of waste. Their construction and operation is described in the article WATER METERS. They are set in the line of the service pipe, just inside the cellar or house line; or, where there is no danger of frost, at a convenient point on the house service, as beneath the sidewalk. In the latter case dial extensions are attached to the registering mechanism, so as to bring the dial up where it may be read with ease.

Babbit Metal

Valve Seat--SECTION THROUGH A WATERWORKS HYDRANT.

WASTE PREVENTION is essential to economy of operation of a water-works plant. As suitable water supplies become more scarce and distant, the conservation of quantity becomes almost as essential as the preservation of the purity of water. The first step in waste prevention is good

PERCENTAGE OF TAPS METERED AND PER CAPITA WATER CONSUMPTION IN THE 50 LARGEST CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1890 AND IN 1900, ARRANGED IN ORDER OF POPULATION*

Per capita

con

sumption

Increase or dec. consumption, in 10 years. gals.

+ 50

+97

87

0.2

Allegbeay.

?

?

+ 63

3

12

7

*The classification is by the census of 1890, so as to include all the cities in the earlier grouping.

New York and Brooklyn consolidated since 1890. Only a small part of the population supplied. workmanship in the construction of the plant, particularly in all the underground portions where leaks are difficult to detect and costly to repair. The next step is to insist on high-grade self-closing plumbing fixtures, including all faucets or spigots for drawing hot and cold water, and particularly the flushing devices of waterclosets. To detect leaks or other causes of waste inside the house line either meters or house-tohouse inspection may be employed. The latter can be made only at long intervals, at best, causes friction, and is insufficient and unsatisfactory. Meters not only detect leaks, but they make the consumer liable for any neglect in stopping them and likewise debit the consumer with all wastefulness due to letting the water run to prevent freezing in cold weather, or to secure cooler water in summer, or because of mere care

A few cities are omitted from each list, on account of missing figures. This table is based on the opposite table, which in turn was based on the classification of the census of 1890, instead of that of 1900.

† In Denver, water is used for irrigation.

lessness. Service pipes may be inspected by means of a steel rod with a telephone receiver or similar device at its upper end. The rod is inserted through the service box and placed on the corporation cock. If ever so small a stream of water is running the ear of the trained observer will catch the sound and an inspection is made. The district meter system is also a help in detecting underground leaks. For leaks and waste inside buildings, due to poor plumbing or carelessness, the district meter system, like house-to-house inspection, is so infrequent as to be but a poor competitor of the house meter system. The district plan has not been used much in the United States, but where employed persistently and intelligently, particularly where house meters were impracticable or underground

leakage suspected, it has given good results. Such simple plans as observing the rate of pumping or the fall of water in reservoirs during the hours of minimum night consumption, or the relative day and night pressures, often assist in controlling waste. Some idea of the water consumption in the larger American cities, the effect of meters thereon, and the increase in consumption from 1890 to 1900 may be gained from the accompanying table. The first half of the table shows the 50 largest cities of the country grouped in order of population by the census of 1900. In the second, or right-hand half, most of the same cities are rearranged in the order of consumption per capita. It will be seen that as a rule there was an increase in per capita consumption during the ten years, but that it was greatest where few or practically no taps were metered; also that most of the cities with low rates of consumption were well metered. The statistics for 1900 were taken from a collection of figures for 134 of the 159 cities of the United States having a popula tion of 25,000 or more by the Twelfth Census of the United States. The average daily consumption for the 134 cities was 137 gallons per capita, having less than 10 per cent. of their taps metered used and wasted as an average 153 gallons, and those having more than 50 per cent. of metered taps consumed only 62 gallons per capita.

PUBLIC POLICY. The only points under this head that can be considered here are the apportionment of the cost of service between the various classes of consumers and one or two phases of the municipal ownership question. Apportionment of cost of service involves not alone the quantity of water consumed by the various users, but the heavy capital charges incurred to make very large rates of consumption available for the few minutes or at most hours at a time when water is used for the extinguishment of fires. Large reservoirs, pumping plants, and mains are provided for fire protection, and used in the aggregate for a short time only in each year. This makes high capital charges, even though the cost of operation for fire protection is small. The other public uses to which water is put, like street-sprinkling, sewer-flushing, and the supply of parks and school buildings, may be paid for on the same general basis as water supplied to private consumers. It is a rare thing under either public or private ownership to find a scientific adjustment of the cost of public and private service between the general taxpayers and private consumers, respectively. But equity demands such an adjustment. The fire, school, street, and other departments should be debited and the water department, in the case of municipal ownership, credited with the value of the services rendered to each. The taxpayer should not be called upon to meet bills of private consumers, nor should the man who uses water for a bath tub and lawn sprinkler have included in his bills for these services the heavy cost of fire protection in the business district. As between different individual consumers in the same class the meter is the best means of apportioning the charges for water. So-called fixture rates are arbitrary guesses and compel the careful wateruser to pay for the waste of the careless.

PUBLIC OWNERSHIP demands for its proper consideration, from the economic standpoint, accurate detailed figures of expenses and revenue,

on a comparative basis. Such figures are rarely available.

The sanitary interests of a community, depending as they do largely upon police measures, are generally considered to be safer where water-works are under public rather than private control. The course of public ownership in this country during the past century is shown below in the table giving the number of works at the close of each half decade:

NUMBER OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE WORKS IN THE UNITED STATES AT THE END OF EACH HALF-DECADE, BEGINNING WITH 1800

Include 12 of joint and five of unknown ownership

The water-works of the cities of Western Asia, Greece, Carthage, Rome, and the European countries under Roman dominion all depended upon gravity for the delivery of the water and were notable chiefly for their aqueducts. Most of the latter were of masonry. (See AQUEDUCTS.) The water within the cities was conveyed by means of lead, wood, and more rarely bored stone or baked clay conduits. (See PIPES.) Some of the earliest pumping works for city supplies, notably those erected at the London Bridge in 1562 by Peter Maurice, are described in the article on PUMPS AND PUMPING MACHINERY. In 1613 water was brought into London from a distance by Sir Hugh Myddleton, who with others secured a charter for the New River Company in 1619. The most notable feature consisted of a water-supply canal about 40 miles long, which brought in water from springs distant, in an air line, about 20 miles. The canal was about 18 feet wide, 5 feet deep, and had an average fall of some 4 inches per mile. Valleys were crossed, for the most part, by means of timber flumes, lined with lead. Subsequently the flumes were replaced by earth embankments. A sale of some of the stock of the New River Company, which for many years shared with seven other companies the profits of supplying the Metropolitan water area, brought a fabulous sum, a few years ago, as compared with the original par value.

The first public water supply in America was introduced in Boston in 1652 by the WaterWorks Company. It consisted of a reservoir about 12 feet square, to which water was conveyed through wooden pipes from neighboring springs and drawn upon for both domestic and

fire purposes. The second American water-works plant was built at Bethlehem, Pa. It was begun in 1754 by a Danish millwright named Hans Christopher Christiansen and was finished in 1761. Water from a spring was piped for 350 feet to a cistern, or well, from which a wooden pump, five inches in diameter, forced it through bored hemlock logs to a wooden tank in the village square, 70 feet above the pumps. In 1761 Christiansen and others built larger works, in cluding three simple-acting iron force pumps, four inches in diameter and with a stroke of 18 inches, driven by an undershot water wheel. The new pipe from the pump to the tank was of gum wood, and the distributing pipes were of pitch pine. In 1769 the latter had to be renewed and in 1786 lead pipes were substituted for both the force pump or force main and most of the distributing pipes. In 1813 iron pipes were introduced, with leather-packed joints, clamped together with iron. The pumps installed in 1761 were used for seventy-one years, when they were supplanted by 536-inch doubleacting pumps, which were in use as late as 1887. Steam was not substituted for water power until 1868. In 1871 the borough bought the works from their private owners, the Bethlehem Water Company.

To the close of the year 1800 there had been built in the United States 16 water-works plants. All but one of these were originally owned by private companies, but during the ninteeenth century 14 of the 15 remaining cities changed from private to public ownership. The names of the 16 cities, the dates the original works were constructed, and the years of change to public ownership are as follows:

WATER-WORKS IN THE UNITED STATES AT THE CLOSE OF 1800

(From The Manual of American Water-Works for 1891.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Consult: Fanning, Hydraulic and Water Supply Engineering (New York, 7th ed., 1889), for many years a recognized standard technical work; Turneaure and Russell, Public Water Supplies (ib., 1901), a comprehensive technical work, with good bibliographies at the close of the most important chapters; Folwell, Water Supply Engineering (ib., 1900), less technical than Fanning; Godell, Water-Works for Small Cities and Towns (ib., 1899), somewhat elementary, but containing numerous citations from scattered papers and articles by able engineers; Burton, Water Supply of Towns (London, 1894), technical general treatise; Gould, Elements of Water Supply Engineering (New York, 1899), relates chiefly to the flow of water in pipes; Billings, Some Details

of Water-Works Construction (ib., 1893), practical points on pipe-laying, etc.; Mason, Water Supply (ib., 1896), "considered principally from a sanitary standpoint;" Fuertes, Water and Pub lic Health (ib., 1897), a brief study of the relation between pure water or the reverse and ty phoid fever; Richards and Woodman, Air, Water, and Food (ib., 1900), a popular work, combined with carefully prepared instructions for making analyses of water; Whipple, The Microscopy of Drinking Water (ib., 1899); Percy and Grace Frankland, Micro-Organisms in Water (London, 1894); Rafter, Microscopical Examination of Potable Water (New York, 1892); Baker, Potable Water and Methods of Detecting Impurities (ib., 1899), brief and popular; Meyer, WaterWaste Prevention (ib., 1885), a brief account of inspection and the use of meters as preven tives of water waste; Hazleton, Towers and Tanks for Water-Works (ib., 1901); Pence, Standpipe Accidents and Failures (ib., 1895): M. N. Baker (editor), The Manual of American Water-Works (ib., 1897), describes all the waterworks plants in the United States and Canada, about 3400 in all, at the close of 1896, and gives statistics of extent of works, receipts and expenditures; also see bibliographies in articles under cross-references.

See AQUEDUCTS; DAMS AND RESERVOIRS; FILTRATION; PIPES; PUMPS AND PUMPING MACHINERY; WATER METERS; WATER PURIFICATION; WATER SUPPLY; WINDMILLS.

WATER-YAM. See LATTICELEAF.

WAT FORD. A market town in HertfordColn, 15 miles northwest of London (Map: Lonshire, England, picturesquely situated on the don, B 3). It has fine public buildings, including a restored Perpendicular church and the well-known London Orphan Asylum. There are silk, paper, and flour mills. Population, in 1891, 17,063; in 1901, 29,023.

WAT'KINS. The county-seat of Schuyler County, N. Y., 22 miles north by west of Elmira, on Seneca Lake, and on the New York Central and the Northern Central railroads (Map: New York, D 3). The vicinity abounds in picturesque lakes and mineral springs, but is better known for its numerous glens and ravines. Watkins Glen, with its cascades and waterfalls. and the group of springs known as the Glen Springs, are especially noteworthy. Other features of the village are the Glen Springs Savatorium and the public and high school libraries. Farming and viticulture are the principal industries of the surrounding country, and the vil lage has large salt works and manufactories of flour, carriages, and iron and lumber products. Population, in 1890, 2604; in 1900, 2943.

WATKINS GLEN. See WATKINS.

WAT'LING'S ISLAND. A small island of the Bahamas, situated in the east central part of the group, 46 miles southeast of Cat Island (Map: Antilles, K 2). It is generally identified with Guanahani or San Salvador, the first landing place of Columbus.

WAT'LING STREET (AS. Watlinga stræt). A celebrated Roman highway of Britain, beginning at Dover, passing through Canterbury and Rochester to London, and thence through Wroxeter and Chester to Caer-Seiont, the ancient Segontium, in Caernarvonshire. From Wroxeter

It

a branch proceeded north by Manchester, Lancaster, and Kendal, into Scotland. Traces of the ancient road exist and in some parts of its course it is still an important highway. forms the boundary between Warwickshire and Leicestershire. The origin of the name is uncertain; the original name was probably Stratum Vitellianum.

WAT'SON, HENRY BRERETON MARRIOTT (1863 -). An English novelist, born at Caulfield, a suburb of Melbourne, Australia, where his father was then settled as a clergyman. He was educated at Canterbury College in Christchurch, New Zealand, went to England in 1885, and soon became a journalist. He is known through his contributions to The National Observer and as assistant editor of Black and White and of the Pall Mall Gazette. The type of novel he mostly follows is a cross between the story of exciting adventure and the very modern psychological romance. Some of his short stories are excellent. His novels comprise mainly Marahuna (1888); Lady Faintheart (1890); The Web of the Spider, a tale of adventure among the Maoris (1891); Diogenes of London (1893); Galloping Dick, consisting of six autobiograph ical stories of Dick Ryder's adventures on the road in the time of Charles the Second (1895); At the First Corner, a collection of short stories (1896); The Heart of Miranda, and Other Stories, dealing with modern life (1898); The Adventurers, a tale of treasure trove on the Welsh border in the year 188 (1898); The Princess Xenia (1899); Chloris of the Island, a story of smuggling on the Dorsetshire coast (1900); The Rebel, an historical romance of the time of Charles the Second (1900); The Skirts of Happy Chance, the fantastic adventures of a young man

of wealth and high birth (1901); The House Divided, dealing with English life in the time of George the Second (1901); and Godfrey Merival, Being a Portion of His History (1902).-His wife, ROSAMUND (1863—), a daughter of Benjamin Williams Ball, was born in London. She became favorably known for much miscellaneous writing, as The Art of the House (1896), and for several volumes of graceful verse, as The Bird-Bride, and Other Poems (1889); A Summer Night, and Other Poems (1891); After Sunset (1895); and Vespertilia, and Other Poems (1895). Consult Archer, Poets of the Younger Generation (London, 1902).

WATSON, HENRY COOD (1816-75). An English-American composer, musical critic and writer, born in London. When but a child he showed remarkable musical talent, and in 1829 appeared at the Covent Garden Theatre in Weber's Oberon. In 1840 he went to New York, and in 1845, with Poe and Charles F. Briggs, he founded the Broadway Journal, which proved a failure financially, though it was ably conducted. He was one of the founders of the Philharmonic Society of New York, and had a chief share in organizing the celebrated Castle Garden Mendelssohn concert. In 1855 he founded The Musical Guest, and published many of his own compositions in its columns. Later he was editorin-chief of Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper; in 1862 started the Art Journal, and for the last twelve years of his life was the musical critic of the New York Tribune. He wrote several

libretti, among them that for Wallace's Turline (1860).

WATSON, HEWETT COTTRELL (1804-81). An English botanist, born at Firbeck, and educated at the University of Edinburgh. In 1831 he was elected senior president of the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh. He went with a survey to the Azores, where he spent three months collecting specimens, several of which were entirely new in the British Gardens. His writings include Outlines of the Geographical Distribution of British Plants (1832), The New Botanist's Guide to the Localities of the Rarer Plants of Great Britain (1835), The London Catalogue of British Plants (6th ed. 1867), and Cybele Britannica, or British Plants and Their Geographical Relations (1847-60).

WATSON, JAMES CRAIG (1838-80). An American astronomer, born in Ontario, Canada, of American parents. He graduated at the University of Michigan, 1857, and was for some time instructor there in mathematics and assistant at the observatory. He became professor of astronomy in the same institution in 1859, of physics and mathematics in 1860, and director of the observatory in 1863. He discovered many planetoids (q.v.), and was at the head of the American expedition which observed the transit of Venus at Peking, China, 1874. He prepared many astronomical charts, but his principal work was his Theoretical Astronomy. This is now a classic treatise on the theory of the motions of comets and planets. Watson left a large sum of money to the National Academy of Sciences (the Watson Fund), the interest of which is used to further astronomical research.

WATSON, JOHN (1847—). An English philosopher. He was born at Glasgow and graduated at Glasgow University in 1872. In the same year he was appointed professor of mental and moral philosophy at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Aside from numerous papers in philosophical journals, his publications include: Kant and His English Critics (1881); Schelling's Transcendental Idealism (1882); The Philosophy of Kant as Contained in Extracts from His Own Writings (1888); Comte, Mill, and Spencer (1895); and An Outline of Philosophy (1898).

WATSON, JOHN (1850-). An English Presbyterian clergyman and author, popularly known by his pseudonym, Ian Maclaren. He was born of Scotch parents at Manningtree, Essex, and studied at Edinburgh University, New College, Edinburgh, and Tübingen. He was licensed by the Free Church of Scotland in 1874 and became assistant at the Barclay Church, Edinburgh. The following year he was ordained minister of the Free Church at Logiealmond, Perthshire. In 1877 he went to Free Saint Matthew's, Glasgow, and in 1880 to Sefton Park Presbyterian Church, Liverpool. He became widely known by his very successful book of stories descriptive of Scotch life and character, Beside the Bonnie Brier Bush (1894), which was followed by The Days of Auld Lang Syne (1895), Kate Carnegie (1896), A Doctor of the Old School (1897), Afterwards (1898), and Rabbi Saunderson (1898). In 1896 Watson gave the Lyman Beecher lectures before the Yale Divinity School, published under the title The Cure of