of a resident. An act of unfriendliness may lead to expulsion, and aid or comfort given to the enemy, that is his home Government, is treason. While his temporary allegiance secures his protection, he may not be compelled to serve in the armed forces of his residence, for no Government could well compel him to commit treason against the country of his paramount allegiance. It likewise follows that his property on the high seas bears the character of his residence or domicile and is seizable by the authorities of his home country as enemy property. Internal trade is thus assimilated to trade of citizens and does not depend upon enemy character. Foreign trade, that is trade beginning within one enemy country and crossing into the country of the other, is trading across enemy lines, and is strictly and absolutely prohibited. This inhibition may be removed by a general or particular license to trade, granted by the sovereign powers of the respective belligerents. Such a permission eliminates the war for the purposes of trade. For a full and accurate account of this important subject, see the two leading cases of The Sea Lion (5 Wallace, 630) and Kershaw vs. Kelsey (100 Mass., 561). For a short summary of the influence of war on trade in its various branches, see INTERNATIONAL LAW.

There are, however, some relations into which belligerents are permitted to enter. Indeed, these relations can only arise in war; and if provided for during peace, the agreements concerning them are made in contemplation of war. These matters pertain to flags of truce, passports, safeconducts and safeguards, cartels, armistices, capitulations, and ransom bills. Negotiations between hostile forces are opened up by flags of truce-a white flag-borne by a member of the opposing force who advances to the enemy. The practice is sufficiently illustrated by Articles 111-114 of Instructions. A passport is a permission in writing to an enemy subject to travel generally within belligerent territory from which he would otherwise be excluded. A safe-conduct differs from a passport in that it is a special permission to an enemy subject or vessel to travel or pass within defined points; while a safeguard, as its name implies, is a guard granted for protection to enemy property or his person. Article 86 of Instructions explains this and defines the authorities by whom the permission in question may be granted. "All intercourse between the territories occupied by belligerent armies, whether by traffic, by letter, by travel, or in any other way, ceases. This is the general rule, to be observed without special proclamation. Exceptions to this rule, whether by safe-conduct, or permission to trade on a small or large scale, or by exchanging mails, or by travel from one territory to the other, can take place only according to agreement approved by the Government, or by the highest military authority. Contraventions of this rule are highly punishable." Cartels are more formal matters, and, according to the most eminent authority of the day, they are "a form of convention made in view of war or during its existence in order to regulate the mode in which such direct intercourse as may be permitted between the belligerent nations shall take place, or the degree and manner in which derogations from the extreme rights of hostility shall be carried out. They provide for postal and telegraphic

communication, when such communication is allowed to continue, for the mode of reception of bearers of flags of truce, for the treatment of the wounded and prisoners of war, for exchange and the formalities attendant upon it, and for other like matters." (Hall, International Law, $193.) The term is most familiar in the form of cartel ships, and in this connection signifies a vessel sailing to defined points under a safe-conduct for the exchange of prisoners of war. The purpose and the safe-conduct exempt from capture; but the slightest hostile act, or engaging in an otherwise forbidden act such as trade, forfeits the privileged character. The vessel is unarmed, although a gun may be carried for purposes of salute or signals. The various provisions relating to the exchange or parole of prisoners are found in Instructions, Articles 105-110; 119

134.

Armistices and capitulations are sufficiently defined in Instructions, 135-137 and 139-147. As regards naval operations the provisions of the Naval Code, Articles 51-52, obtain. "Article 51. A truce or capitulation may be concluded, without special authority, by the commander of a naval force of the United States with the commander of the forces of the enemy, to be limited, however, to their respective commands. A general armistice requires an agreement between the respective belligerent governments. Article 52. After agreeing upon or signing a capitulation the capitulator must neither injure nor destroy the vessels, property, or stores in his possession that he is to deliver up, unless the right to do so is expressly reserved to him in the agreement or capitulation." In addition to these more formal and indefinite suspensions of hostilities, truces for short periods are entered into for the burial of the dead.

Ransom bills are perhaps the most complete exception to the rule prohibiting trade, for they are contracts not only made by individual enemies, but also enforceable during the continu ance of war. They are nothing more nor less than the repurchase by the original owner of a vessel captured at sea. The contract is made in duplicate, one copy of which is given to the master of the captured vessel, and serves as a safe-conduct protecting the vessel from seizure by the enemy country or its allies as long as a prescribed course is kept for the port of destination agreed upon. Variations from this course, unless arising from necessity, subject to second capture, and any excess of the ransom price in the amount realized on a sale goes to the second captor. If the captured vessel is taken with the ransom bill on board, the bill is discharged. The system of ransom is of advantage to owner and captor; the owner repurchases at a lower figure and saves the crew from detention as prisoners, and the captor is freed from the necessity of sending the prize into port.

As previously explained, war renders enemy property with certain specific exceptions liable to capture on the high seas. See PRIVATEERING; PRIZE. On the time within and the conditions upon which enemy property will, if recaptured, be restored to the original owner, see RECAPTURE.

Upon the termination of war, however brought about, the belligerents cease to be enemies and the residents of both countries resume their peaceful pursuits, as if the war had never hap

In

pened. All rights and obligations existing at the outbreak of war may now be enforced, provided their nature is not such as to render their performance through lapse of time or change of circumstances useless or impossible. Statutes of limitation cease to run at the outbreak of war, and on the declaration of peace they begin again as at the time of the beginning of the war. this way the war, legally speaking, is simply wiped out. Otherwise to hold would be mani fest injustice; for one can hardly be blamed for not enforcing his right during the time of the statute when the court is closed to him. Official relations between the belligerents are resumed, for war of course puts an end to diplomatic intercourse. During the continuance of war it is customary for a neutral to offer its services so that the interests of the particular belligerent may not unduly suffer. In this way Mr. E. B. Washburn, the American Minister to France, was of great service to Germany during the Franco

Prussian War.

War may terminate in three ways: by treaty; by cessation of hostilities; by conquest. The treaty is the usual method and is the best; for the parties to the war can, do, and should thus settle by a careful and formal document the various issues that caused the war, and provide for peaceful and harmonious relations in the future. In cases of war indemnity and cession of territory, a treaty is well-nigh indispensable. It should be said that, for purposes of public right or sovereignty, the treaty speaks from its signature; but private rights determine or vest from date of ratification. (Haver vs. Yaker, 9 Wallace, 32.) See TREATY.

The cases of mere cessation of hostilities are exceedingly rare; for it is hard to conceive how nations willingly choose to go on after, as before the war, with no precise and formal settlement of the outstanding difficulties or causes of the war. "The war between Sweden and Poland in 1716, and also the war between France and Spain in 1720, came to an end in this way. The war between Spain and her American colonies ceased in 1825, but no diplomatic relations were established with them till 1840, and the independence of Venezuela was not recognized till 1850. After the hostilities between France and Mexico (1862-67), no diplomatic relations were entered into till 1881." (Wilson and Tucker, International Law, p. 271.) In justice to neutrals, an official statement of the termination of hostilities should be made; otherwise the uncertainty of the exact status will seriously interfere with neutral trade. If, however, no treaty or declaration be made, peace may be established as a fact and dates from the last warlike act. As regards conquest made during the war, the principle of uti possidetis obtains, that is each belligerent retains what it holds or occupies at the conclusion of hostilities. If territory is thus occupied and possessed, the laws and customs remain in force until changed by the new sovereign, and the same is true in case of a treaty unless specific rules and regulations are agreed upon and incorporated into the document. A leading case on this subject is Leitensdorfer vs. Webb (20 Howard, 176), and the subject incidentally underwent much discussion in the recent Insular cases (182 U. S., 1 et seq.). In the case of conquest, the conquered State or Territory is absorbed in the

conqueror, and, succeeding to its rights and merits, it likewise assumes its debts and obligations. If part of a State or province be absorbed, the rights and duties are apportioned between the belligerents.

suits.

While the parties to a contest are more intimately concerned by its effects, third parties or neutrals are nevertheless interested. Their trade is necessarily interrupted and at times suspended; for military and naval operations do not accord well with trading and peaceful purstranger to the contest takes no part whatever The theory of neutrality is that the in it, and prevents its subjects directly or indirectly so far as possible from aiding either belligerent. Nor should it allow its ports to be used as a basis for hostile operations, supply stations, or ports of shelter. A neutral may, however, trade with either belligerent or both, in all articles except those denominated contraband (Naval Code, Arts. 34-36.) (See CONThe neutral TRABAND; INTERNATIONAL LAW.) should not seek to enter a blockaded port of a belligerent, for by so doing it interferes with military or naval operation and furnishes the blockaded port with supplies and articles of trade. (Naval Code, Arts. 37-45.) (See BLOCKADE; INTERNATIONAL LAW.) To see that neutral vessels do not carry articles of contraband and that such neutral vessels are not destined for a blockaded port, belligerents possess and exercise the right to visit and search neutral vessels. (Naval Code, Articles 30-33.) This is strictly a war right and does not exist in peace. See SEARCH, RIGHT OF; NEUTRALITY.

of war.

An unrecognized rebellion is treated according to the law of the country where it occurs: for rebels as such have no standing in international law. (See REBELLION; TREASON.) Vessels of unrecognized insurgents on the high seas are treated as technical pirates; but if they confine their operations to the vessels and commerce of the mother country they are clearly not guilty of piracy. See PIRACY.

ades, military commissions, and martial law, see For embargo, reprisal, retorsion, pacific block

these articles.

PRISONERS OF WAR. "A prisoner of war is a public enemy armed or attached to the hostile army for active aid, who has fallen into the hands of the captor by individual surrender or by capitulation. All soldiers, of whatever species of arms; all men who belong to the rising en masse of the hostile country [not already occupied by an invading army; Art. 52]; all those who are attached to the army for its efficiency and promote directly the object of the war ; all disabled men or officers on the field or elsewhere, if captured; all enemies who have thrown away their arms and ask for quarter [which may not be refused except in 'great straits' or in retaliation; Arts. 60-66], are prisoners of war and as such exposed to the inconveniences as well as entitled to the privilege of a prisoner of war." (Instructions for United States Armies, Article 49). In addition, sutlers, editors, reporters of journals, or contractors may be made prisoners of war (Art. 50). Chaplains, officers of the medical staff, apothecaries, hospital nurses, and servants are not prisoners of war

(Art. 53). Hostages, rarely given and accepted to-day, are treated as prisoners (Arts. 54-55).

The recognized naval forces are as follows: "The officers and men of the navy, naval reserve, naval militia, and their auxiliaries; the officers and men of all other armed vessels cruising under lawful authority." (United States Naval War Code, Art. 9). The personnel of all public unarmed vessels owned or in the enemy's service; the personnel of merchant vessels, who in selfdefense and in protection of the vessel resist attack, as well as "the personnel of the armed forces or armed vessels of the enemy, whether combatants or non-combatants, are entitled to receive the humane treatment due to prisoners of war" (Art. 10). Hospital ships and their personnel if strictly neutral are not liable to capture (Arts. 21-25), and the religious, medical, and hospital personnel of any vessel captured during hostilities are inviolable, and on leaving ship may carry with them articles and instruments of surgery which are their private property (Art. 26).

In battle, the enemy may be wounded or killed; unresisting he has the right to quarter; as prisoner of war, his life, person, and property are placed under the protection of the captor. This applies to soldier and sailor; to the able-bodied, sick, wounded, or shipwrecked (Instructions, Arts. 71-72; Naval Code, Arts. 27-29). The captured enemy is deprived of his arms and thus loses his enemy character. He has, however, a right to support and nourishment ("plain and wholesome food," Instructions, Art. 76), and if able-bodied may be made to work (though not to perform military service) for the benefit of the captors' government (Instructions, Art. 76). Prisoners are subject to confinement or imprisonment such as may be necessary either for their own or the captor's safety; but they are subject to no intentional suffering or indignity. They should be treated with humanity and the sick and wounded receive medical treatment, according to the ability of the medical staff (Instructions, Arts. 75, 79; Naval Code, Arts. 27-29).

The status of prisoner, once established, continues as long as the captor retains control of the person. It ends by a successful escape, but an unsuccessful attempt entails stricter confinement. An escaping prisoner may, however, be shot or otherwise killed (Instructions, Art. 77). The status likewise ends by exchange, officer for officer of equal rank, private for private, and a stated number of inferior for superior officers, according to the cartel or formal agreement of the belligerents (Instructions, Arts. 105-110). Or the prisoners may be paroled, that is, set free, upon an express promise not to serve in a military capacity against the captor during the continuance of the war. Only an officer may pledge his honor, that is, give his word or parole for himself and soldiers; if the parole thus given be rejected by his Government officers and soldiers must return to the enemy. Violation of the parole is punishable, on recapture, by death (Instructions, Arts. 119-34). An escaped prisoner who joins his army is not punishable if subsequently captured (Instructions, Art. 78). It should be noted that armed bands acting without commission or authorization of any kind are not treated as prisoners, but as highway robbers or pirates (Instructions, Art. 82).

Such is the present treatment of prisoners of war, the most recent formulation of which is found in the proceedings of the Hague Peace Conference of 1899. In ancient times the enemy was put to the sword or enslaved, according to the captor's pleasure; in the Middle Ages little difference seems to have been made between combatant and non-combatant. The doctrine is, however, settled beyond need of argument that only the enemy in battle may be wounded or killed; that the unresisting enemy on the field or the vessel is entitled to quarter; and in captivity to like treatment, as far as circumstances permit, with the soldier and sailor of the captor.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. In addition to authorities appended to the article on INTERNATIONAL LAW, consult Taylor, Public International Law (Chicago, 1901); Davis, Elements of International Law (revised ed., New York, 1900); Wilson and Tucker, International Law (ib., 1901); Scott, Cases on International Law, part ii. (Boston, 1902); Maine, International Law (London, 1888); Harcourt, Letters by Historicus (ib., 1863); Wildman, Institutes of International Law, vol. ii. (ib., 1850); Sheldon Amos, Remedies for War (ib., 1880); Holls, Peace Conference at The Hague (New York, 1900). This work is indispensable for a correct understanding of the subject. The Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field (1863) and The Laws and Usages of War at Sea (1900) are given in convenient form in the appendix to Wilson and Tucker. For War in its purely mili- . tary aspect see STRATEGY; TACTICS; ARMY OR

GANIZATION.

WAR, DEPARTMENT OF. An executive department of the United States Government, created by act of Congress of August 7, 1789. It has at its head a secretary appointed by the President by and with the advice and consent of the Senate for a period of four years. He ranks third among the Cabinet members in the line of succession to the Presidency and receives a salary of $8000 per year. He has charge of all matters relating to military affairs, subject to the direc tion of the President, the distribution of stores, the Signal Service, the survey and improvement of harbors, and the administration of the insular possessions. He is required to make an annual report of the conduct of the department showing the number and distribution of the military forces together with a statement of the expenditures, of contracts for supplies and services, river and harbor improvements, the administration of the insular territories, etc. The business of the War Department is distributed among a number of subdivisions or bureaus, each of which is under the supervision of a chief and under the general supervision of the chief of staff. These include: the headquarters of the Army, through which the orders of the President are issued by the chief of staff; the office of the adjutant-general, which conducts the army correspondence, supervises the recruiting and enlistment service, receives reports from army officers, issues commissions, and preserves the records of the army; the office of the inspector-general; the office of the quartermaster-general; the commissary department; the office of the surgeon-general; the office of the paymaster-general; the office of the chief of engineers; the ordnance department; the signal office; the office of the

judge-advocate-general; the record and pension office; and the Bureau of Insular Affairs. The last is charged with supervision of the administration of the recently acquired insular territories. Since 1890 the Secretary of War has been aided by an Assistant Secretary.

WAR AND PEACE. An historical novel by Tolstoy (1865-68). The plot is laid in the reign of Czar Alexander I. and reveals the social and political conditions of Russia during the Napoleonic invasion, as they are symbolized in the history of two families.

WARASDIN, vär'ȧz-dên () (Hung. Varasd). A town of Croatia-Slavonia, 150 miles southwest of Budapest, on the left bank of the Drave (Map: Austria, E 3). The town has manufactures of tobacco, liquors, acetic acid, and anchors. Population, in 1900, 12,930.

WARBECK, war'běk, PERKIN (1474-99). A pretender to the English throne. He was born at Tournay, the son of John Osbeck or Warbeck, a citizen of that town. In 1491 he went to Cork and agreed at the instigation of opponents of Henry VII. to set up a claim that he was Richard, Duke of York, second son of Edward IV. For a while he received some support, especially among foreign powers hostile to England and Henry VII. James IV. of Scotland even gave him his own cousin, Catherine Gordon, as wife in 1495. In 1497 he made an expedition into England, but was captured. He confessed his imposture and was allowed considerable liberty, but when he engaged in new conspiracies he was condemned to death and executed at Tyburn on November 23, 1499. Consult Gairdner, Richard III. (London, 1898), to which the story of Perkin Warbeck is appended. See HENRY VII.

WARBLE-FLY. Any one of several species of flies of the family Estridæ, which lay their eggs upon different animals, and whose larvæ eventually form a swelling or 'warble' under the skin. The name 'ox-warble' is specifically ap plied to the swellings made by the bot-fly of the ox (Hypoderma lineata); and the bot-fly of the rabbit (Cuterebra cuniculi) produces similar warbles under the skin of rabbits. See BOT; BOT-FLY. WARBLER (from warble, from OF. werbler, from MHG. *werbelen, Ger. wirbeln, to warble, whirl, turn, frequentative of MHG., Ger. werben, OHG. werban, to turn, twist, AS. hweorfan, Goth. hwairban, to turn, move; perhaps connected with Gk. kapwaλiμbs, karpalimos, swift). A small song-bird; properly one of either of two passerine families, namely, the American Mniotiltide and the Old World Sylviidæ. The former includes the warblers of North and Middle America, numbering about 200 species, accord. ing to Ridgway, few of which are as much as six inches long. With few execeptions they are woodland birds, wholly insectivorous, and prettily, if not gorgeously, colored. The males are much more brilliantly colored than the females except in a few cases. They are highly migratory, and of the 60 or more species found in the United States all but one or two winter south of Mason and Dixon's line and nearly all spend the coldest months in the tropics. As many of the species breed in the far north, they are the most striking feature of the migrations in many parts of the United States. They are extremely active birds, and only a few species resort to the ground

for food. Although several species sing well, the majority have weak voices and make no pretense of singing. Among our numerous warblers a few are specially notable. Perhaps the most beautiful species is the prothonotary (Protonotaria citrea), the male of which has the whole of the head, neck, and under parts rich orange and the back greenish yellow. It is rarely seen north of Washington and winters in the tropics. The genus Helminthophila includes about 10 species known as the 'swamp warblers' (q.v.), some of which are beautifully colored. The genus Dendroica is the largest group, containing not less than 35 species. The best known of these is the common yellow or 'summer' warborchards throughout nearly all North America. ler (Dendroica æstiva), familiar in gardens and It is five inches long, bright yellow dimly streaked with rufous; it has a sweet, trilling song, and makes a pretty nest of hempen materials, lodging it in some upright forking of the branches of a shrub or small tree. Another familiar and widely distributed species is the redstart (Setophaga ruticilla), black and red, or in the female black and orange-yellow, which is notable for its gayety of manner as well as of dress, and sings well. Very brilliant also is the orange, black, and white Blackburnian warbler (Dendroica Blackburnia), seen in passing to and from its Canadian breeding-home. Townsend's warbler is a Pacific Coast representative of this genus. Another noteworthy Western warbler is the hermit (Dendroica occidentalis), which breeds in the high mountains of California, forming an exquisite nest out of 'graybeard moss' hanging from spruce boughs. Another genus contains the Maryland yellowthroat (q.v.), and its handsome relative, the Kentucky warbler (Geothlypis formosa), whose habits and method of nest-making keep them close to the ground. The striking manner in which yellow and black are often contrasted in the plumage of these charming birds is well displayed in the genus Sylvania, two species of which are displayed on the accompanying Colored Plate of WOOD-WARBLERS. See also CHAT; OVEN-BIRD; REDSTART, etc.

The 'warblers' of the Old World are small birds of the subfamily Sylviinæ, closely related to the thrushes and our kinglets and gnatcatchers; many are known by separate popular names, as blackcap, nightingale, hedge-sparrow, redbreast, redstart, whitethroat, etc. (qq.v.). About 100 species are catalogued-all belonging to the Old World, except one in Alaska. The best known European species are the following: Grasshopper warbler (Locustella locustella), found in most parts of the centre and south of Europe. It is of a greenish-brown color, the centres of the feathers dark brown, producing a spotted appearance; the lower parts pale brown. It is a shy bird, hiding itself in hedges and bushes, but very active, often darting out like a mouse from the bottom of the hedge, and receives its name from its chirping, grasshopper-like note. The sedge warbler ( Acrocephalus phragmitis) is the most common British species, and is generally found where aquatic herbage is thick and strong. It is brown, with the chin and throat white, and the under parts buff. The red warbler (Acrocephalus arundinacea) is found in summer in marshy situations in many parts of Europe, and its range extends to the north of India. It is

a uniform pale brown, with a tinge of chestnut; the chin and throat white; the under parts pale buff color. Its nest is remarkable; it is attached to the stems of three or four reeds, and formed by winding the branches of their panicles together with a little wool; and is conical and deep, so that the eggs or young may not be shaken out when the reeds are shaken by the wind. The wood warbler or wood wren (Phylloscopus sibilatrix) is common in the wooded districts of England in summer, particularly in old planta tions of oak and beech. It is olive green, tinged with yellow, the wings brown, the primaries and secondaries edged with bright yellow, the tertials with a broader edge of yellowish white; the lower parts yellow and white. The willow warbler or 'wren' (Phylloscopus trochilus) is very common in the south of England in the summer. It frequents woods and bushes and builds its nest on the ground. It is of dull olive-green, the wing and tail feathers dark brown, the under parts whitish. The only American representative of this family is an Asiatic species (Phylloscopus borealis), which regularly visits Alaska in summer, and is known to American ornithologists as Kennicott's willow warbler. See Plate of WRENS, WARBLERS, ETC.

Consult Newton, Dictionary of Birds (London, 1893-96), and other authorities cited under BIRD for the Sylviida; for the Mniotiltidæ, consult American ornithologies, especially Ridgway, Birds of North and Middle America, part ii. (Washington, 1902), and Coues, Birds of the Colorado Valley (Washington, 1878).

WAR'BURTON, BARTHOLOMEW ELLIOTT GEORGE (1810-52). An Irish miscellaneous writer, generally known as Eliot Warburton, born near Tullamore, King's County. He was educated at Queen's College and Trinity College, Cambridge, was admitted to the Irish bar at King's Inns in 1837, and in 1843 traveled through Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. In 1851 he was sent by the Atlantic and Pacific Junction Company as its representative to make terms with the Indians of the Isthmus of Darien. He met his death in the burning of the steamer Amazon off Land's End. He edited the Memoirs of Horace Walpole and His Contemporaries (2 vols., 1851), and published: The Crescent and the Cross (2 vols., 1844), descriptive of Eastern travel; Zoë: An Episode of the Greek War (1847); Memoirs of Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers (1849); Reginald Hastings (1850), and Darien, or the Merchant Prince (3 vols., 1852). Consult the Fortnightly Review, vol. xvii. (London, 1872).

WARBURTON, PETER EGERTON (1813-89). An English traveler in Australia, born near Norwich and educated at Orleans and Paris. He traveled through the northwestern part of Australia on camel-back and several times was near to starvation in the desert. He wrote Major Warburton's Diary (1866), and Journey Across the Western Interior of Australia (1875).

with great ability. He was especially successful in winning the friendship of the Khyber Afridis. In 1897-98 he served with the Tirah expedition. He wrote Eighteen Years in the Khyber (1900).

WARBURTON, WILLIAM (1698-1779). An English prelate and author. He was born at Newark and was educated at the school of his native town, and afterwards at Oakham in Rutland

shire, which he left in the year 1714, returning home to pursue the profession of his father, who had died some years before. He practiced as an attorney at Newark for some years, but his natural bent was toward literature, and he had all along expressed a desire to take orders in the Church of England. He did so in 1723, and in 1728 became rector of Brant-Broughton, in the diocese of Lincoln, where he remained for many years. He issued, in 1736, a treatise entitled The Alliance Between Church and State, or the

Necessity and Equity of an Established Religion and a Test Law. In January, 1737-38, it was followed by the first volume of the celebrated work, The Divine Legation of Moses, Demonstrated on Omission of the Doctrine of a Future State of the Principles of a Religious Deist, from the sation. In 1739 a new and revised edition of the Rewards and Punishments in the Jewish Dispen first part of the work appeared. This was followed in 1741 by the publication of the second part. The third and concluding section was published posthumously. Becoming involved in the controversy which followed the appearance of Pope's Essay on Man, Warburton undertook the defense of the poet, and, in 173940, issued a series of seven letters, entitled A Vindication of Mr. Pope's Essay on Man, by the Author of the Divine Legation. A warm friendship was the result, which only terminated with the death of Pope in 1744.

Warburton's services to literature and religion did not for a long time bring him any substantial preferment. In 1757 he was promoted to the deanery of Bristol; and finally, in 1760, Pitt bestowed on him the Bishopric of Gloucester. In the later years of his life his mind became impaired; and he was utterly prostrated by the loss of his only son, whom he did not long survive. He died at Gloucester.

Warburton was a keen polemic and deeply engaged in all the intellectual warfare of his time. In nearly everything he wrote there is the impress of a vigorous and fertile mind, with an arrogance of tone, which tends, in his treatment of adversaries, to degenerate into truculence and scurrility. His scholarship was never deep or accurate, though he had wide reading and undoubted intellectual vigor. A complete edition of his works, in 7 volumes, was published in 1788 by his friend, Bishop Hurd, who prefaced it with a biography (new edition, 12 vols., 1811). Consult his biography by Watson (London, 1863); also an essay in Mark Pattison, Essays (Oxford, 1889).

WAR COLLEGE, UNITED STATES ARMY. An organization having for its object the direction and coördination of the instruction in the various service schools, the extension of the opportunities for investigation and study in the army and militia of the United States, and the collection and dissemination of military information. The college, which is located at Washington, is un