de philologie (1861). The work of Le Bas, Voyage archéologique en Grèce et en Asie Mineure (Paris, 1868-77), was also continued by him. With these should be named his other important publications within the same field, Inscriptions grecques et latines de Syrie (1870), and his Edit de Diocletien (1864). His services to classical scholarship were recognized in 1865 by his election to the Académie des Inscriptions. Waddington became prominent in political life in 1871, when he entered the National Assembly; in 1873 he was Minister of Public Instruction under Thiers for six days only; and in 1876 he was chosen Senator. On December 13, 1877, he became Minister of Foreign Affairs in Dufaure's Cabinet, and as such took part in the Berlin Congress (1878). In February, 1879, he was appointed by President Grévy to the presidency of the Council. He resigned in December of that year. From 1883 to 1893 he was the French Ambassador at the Court of Saint James's. Consult Mme. Waddington, Letters of a Diplomat's Wife (London, 1903). WADE, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1800-78). An American political leader, born of humble parentage, near West Springfield, Mass. He removed to Ohio in 1821; largely supported himself, and finally studied law; was admitted to the bar in 1827, and in 1831 became the partner of Joshua R. Giddings (q.v.). He was elected prosecuting attorney of Ashtabula County in 1835, and State Senator in 1837 and 1841; and was chosen presiding judge of the third judicial district of the State in 1847. From 1851 until 1869 he was a member of the United States Senate. He was a Whig, and a strong opponent of slavery; voted for the repeal of the Fugitive Slave Law in 1852; and opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Bill (q.v.) of 1854, the purchase of Cuba, and the admission of Kansas under the Lecompton Constitution (q.v.). After the election of Lincoln in 1860 he opposed all compromise between the North and the South; was chairman of the Committee on the Conduct of the War in 1861-62, and advocated a more vigorous policy, urging a law to confiscate the property of the leading secessionists and to emancipate the slaves. In association with Henry Winter Davis and other radical Republicans, he caused, in the summer of 1864, an open breach with the President upon the proper method and policy of Reconstruction (q.v.), and issued the Wade Davis Manifesto, condemning in strong language the policy of the President. It was he who reported in 1862, as chairman of the Committee on Territories, a bill to abolish slavery in all the Territories, and prohibit it in all future Territories. He was elected president of the Senate in 1867, and was sent in 1871 as one of the commission to Santo Domingo to report in regard to its annexation to the United States. Senator Wade was popularly known as 'Ben' or 'Old Ben,' and was greatly admired by his associates for his rugged, fearless manner, his honesty of purpose, and independence of thought. Consult Riddle, Life of Benjamin F. Wade (Cleveland, 1886). WADE, THOMAS (1805-75). An English poet, born at Woodbridge, in Suffolk. He went to London at an early age with a competence, and began to publish remarkable verse under the inspiration of Shelley and Keats. He met with some success in the acting drama; but he eventually turned to journalism, becoming editor and part proprietor of Bell's Weekly Messenger. After losing much by this undertaking, he retired to the Isle of Jersey, where he edited the British Press, and continued to write verse until his death. Wade's first volume of poems, Tasso and the Sisters (1825), displaying rare imaginative qualities, especially in the piece called "The Nuptials of Juno," was followed by a collection strangely called Mundi et Cordis, de Rebus Sempiternis et Temporariis, Carmina (1835), and remarkable verse pamphlets: The Contention of Death and Love (1837), Helena (1837), The Shadow Seeker (1837), and Prothanasia and Other Poems (1839). In the meantime, he had written for the stage Woman's Love (Covent Garden Theatre, 1828), The Phrenologists, a farce (Covent Garden, 1830), and The Jew of Arragon (Covent Garden, 1830). The latter was damned owing to its exaltation of the Jew. Of two other dramas written at this period, Elfrida is lost, and King Henry II. exists only in manuscript. The manuscript of a series of sonnets inspired by his wife is in the possession of Buxton Forman; and likewise a translation (made in 1845-46) of Dante's Inferno in the original metre. Consult: Miles (ed.), Poets and Poetry of the Century, vol. iii. (London, 1896), which contains an estimate by Forman; Nicoll and Wise (ed.), Literary Anecdotes of the Nineteenth Century, vol. i. (London, 1895), which contains a specimen of the Dante, fifty sonnets, and the first two verse pamphlets cited above. WADE, Sir THOMAS FRANCIS (1818-95). A British diplomat, born in London. He was educated at Harrow, and a year after matriculating at Trinity College, Cambridge, he entered the army (1838). Promoted lieutenant, he went to Hong Kong, becoming regimental interpreter in Chinese (1842); and he took part in the attack on Chinkiang, and in the operations near Nanking during the Opium War. In 1853 he was appointed vice-consul at Shanghai, and was chief of the commission that established the customs administration which developed into the Imperial Maritime Customs Service. He was attached to Lord Elgin's mission in 1857, and negotiated the treaty of Tien-tsin (1858). He assisted in establishing the legation at Peking (1861), where, after experience as chargé d'affaires, in which capacity he conducted the difficult negotiations arising from the Tien-tsin massacre of 1870, he became Minister in 1871. Largely through his effort, audience to Ministers was granted by the Emperor T'ungchih in 1873. As a result of the murder of A. R. Margary in Yun-nan, he negotiated with Li Hung Chang the Chifu convention of 1876. Made C. B. in 1862, Wade was advanced K. C. B. in 1883, and retired. In 1888 he was appointed first professor of Chinese at Cambridge. Among his publications, which include several valuable books for the study of Chinese, are: The Hsin Ching Lu, or Book of Experiments (1859); Wenchien Tzu-erh Chi (1867), dealing with documentary Chinese; and Yü-yen Tzu-erh Chi (1867; enlarged 1886), a progressive course in the colloquial Peking variety of the Mandarin dialect. Wade bequeathed his large Chinese library to Cambridge Univer sity. WADHAM (wŏd'am) COLLEGE. A college at Oxford, England. It was founded by Nicholas Wadham, of Merifield, Sussex, and Dorothy, his wife, daughter of Sir William Petre, the great benefactor of Exeter College. Sir Nicholas dying in 1609, his plan was carried out by his wife. The site and ruins of the old priory of the Austin Friars were purchased, and the building of the college was begun in 1610, the society being founded by letters patent from James I., in 1612. The original foundation was for a warden, fifteen fellows, fifteen scholars, two chaplains, and two clerks. In 1882 there was a change in the statutes, which provided for a warden, eight fellows, several honorary fellows, two chaplains, college officers, a number of lecturers, eighteen scholars, and some one hundred undergraduates in all. The buildings, dating from the seventeenth century, are very attractive, though not specially remarkable. The garden is one of the most pleasant in Oxford. The college presents to ten livings. Among the distinguished men connected with the college have been Admiral Blake, Sir Christopher Wren, Bishop Ward, Dr. Kennicott, and Frederic Harrison. WADI, wä’dê, or WADY (Ar. wādi, from wadaya, to flow). Properly, a river or watercourse, but more generally a valley or ravine; sometimes also an oasis. These various meanings are due to the climatic and physical conditions of Arabia and Palestine, where all fertility is dependent upon the presence of water, and the streams are, for the most part, during the greater part of the year, mere beds with little or no water, although in the rainy season they frequently become raging torrents. WADI HALIFA (valley of grass). The chief town of the district of Wadi Halfa, Egyptian Sudan, on the right bank of the Nile, one mile below the second cataract, in latitude 21° 54′ N., or 6' south of the Egyptian boundary (Map: Africa, H 2). Here the Sudan military railway branches, one line going to Kerma and the other to Khartum. There is a mosque. Population, with Dabrosa, in 1897, 2675. WADING BIRDS. A group of birds, within the order Ciconiiformes, prominently characterized by having very long, naked legs, the feet partly webbed, the neck long and capacious, and the beak long, pointed, and strong. The group includes the herons and bitterns (suborder Ardex); the storks, ibises, and spoonbills (Ciconiæ); and the flamingoes (Phoenicopteri). Their associates in the order are the totipalmate seabirds (suborder Steganopodes). The waders haunt swamps and marshes, and walk about in the shallows, never swimming or diving, where they catch fish, frogs, reptiles, crayfish, and the like, by a darting of the bill, projected by the very muscular neck. Some are nearly terrestrial and live largely on insects; while the flamingoes (q.v.) are otherwise exceptional. Most of these birds are of large size and have white, gray, or brownish plumage, some developing ornamental plumes (see AIGRET); the character and distribution of 'powder-down' patches are an important tribal feature. They are mainly migratory and gre garious, and most of them nest in companies on trees. All are precocial and lay unspotted eggs. See HERON; STORK; and similar titles; and Colored Plate of WADING BIRDS. WAD’MAN, WIDOW. A designing, middleaged woman in Sterne's Tristram Shandy, who seeks to captivate Uncle Toby. WADS WORTH, FRANK LAWTON OLCOTT (1867―). An American astronomer, born in Wellington, Ohio. He was educated at Ohio State University and at Clark University. In 1892 he became senior assistant in charge of the Astrophysical Observatory, Washington, in 1894 assistant professor of physics in the University of Chicago, in 1896 assistant professor of astrophysics at Yerkes Observatory, and in 1897 associate professor. In 1900 he was appointed director of Allegheny Observatory. WADSWORTH, JAMES SAMUEL (1807-64). An American soldier, born at Geneseo, N. Y. He was educated at Hamilton College, at Harvard, and at Yale, though he did not graduate at any of these institutions; studied law under Daniel Deniston in Albany, and in 1833 was admitted to the bar, but never practiced his profession, and until the Civil War was occupied with the management of the family estates, comprising Webster in Boston and under McKeon and altogether about 15,000 acres. He took an active interest in agricultural affairs, and in 1842 was president of the New York State Agricultural Society. In 1861 he was a member of the Peace Convention (q.v.), in which he opposed the granting of extreme concessions to the South, and in June, 1861, soon after the outbreak of the Civil War, he became a volunteer aide, with the rank of major, on the staff of General McDowell. He participated in the first battle of Bull Run; was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general of volunteers in August, 1861; and from March to December, 1862, was military Governor of Washington, D. C. In 1862, also, he was the Republican candidate for Governor of New York, but was defeated by his Democratic opponent, Horatio Seymour. He led a division, with great gallantry, at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, and at Gettysburg took a conspicuous part in the first day's fighting and then occupied Culp's Hill, where he helped to repel the Confederate assaults on the second and third days of the battle. Early in 1864 he made a tour of inspection through the Western and Southwestern States; and subsequently, while commanding a division in the battle of the Wilderness (q.v.), May 6th, was mortally wounded, dying two days later. He received the brevet of major-general of volunteers to date from May 6, 1864. WAECHTER, vek'ter, KARL GEORG VON (1797-1880). A prominent German jurist, born in Marbach-on-the-Neckar, and educated at Tübingen and Heidelberg. The year he left the university for legal practice he was recalled to Tübingen as professor of law. There he stayed until 1833, and in 1836 returned thither after three years in Leipzig, to become professor and chancellor of the university, which he represented in the Estates. From 1839 to 1851 he was president of the Chambers. In 1852 he was called to Leipzig to become professor of the law of the Pandects. He was made a member of the Saxon Council of State in 1855, and privy councilor in 1872. As a jurist Waechter showed great range of knowledge, lecturing and writing on almost every branch of law with an equally remarkable grasp of theory and practice. His more important works are: Lehr buch des römisch-deutschen Strafrechts (182526); Gemeines Recht Deutschlands (1844); Beiträge zur deutschen Geschichte (1845); Pandekten (1880-81); and Deutsches Strafrecht (1881). Consult his Life by his son Oscar (Leipzig, 1881). WAFER ASH. See HOP-TREE. WAGER (from OF. wager, guager, gager, Fr. gager, to pledge, wager, from ML. wadiare, to pledge, from wadium, vadium, pledge, from Goth. wadi, OHG. weti, wetti, Ger. Wette, AS. wedd, obsolete Eng. wed, pledge; connected with Lat. vas, surety, bail, Lith. vaduti, to redeem, ransom, and probably with Gk. delov, aethlon, delov, athlon, prize of contest). A promise or agreement to pay money or transfer property to another upon the happening or determination of an uncertain event. The promise is given in consideration of the payment of money or transfer of property by the other party to the wager, or a promise on his part to pay money or transfer property if the event fails to happen or if it happens in a particular manner specified by the agreement. The uncertainty of the event may arise either because it has not happened or because it is not known to the parties to the wager. Thus a wager may be made as to the outcome of a race which has not taken place or a wager may be made as to the weight or size of an existing object, the only uncertainty being in the knowledge of the parties to the wager. It will thus be seen that many common forms of commercial contracts are technically wagers. Thus contracts of insurance, contracts dealing in 'futures' in stocks or any commodity, are strictly speaking wagers. At early common law wagering contracts were held to be valid unless they involved sorne element in addition to the wager which rendered them contrary to public policy and therefore illegal. There have been numerous statutes also affecting wagers in the form of commercial contracts. The act of 7 Geo. II., c. 8, made illegal all wagers upon the price of stocks by agreements to pay differences,' that is, to settle a contract for the sale of stocks for future delivery by paying the difference between the contract and market prices on the date of delivery. This statute was subsequently repealed. For further consideration of the subject, see the titles GAMBLING; BETTING; OPTION; etc. WAGER POLICY. In insurance law, a policy covering a risk on a person in whom, or property in which, the insured has no financial interest of dependency, technically known as an insurable interest. Such policies are void by the old English common law, and also by virtue of statutes in England, and in the United States where similar statutes have not been enacted, the English law is held to be a part of their common law and applied to such cases. The English insurance companies insure the life of the sovereign for the benefit of tradesmen, however, on the theory that the death of the former would cause a depression in trade and consequent loss to the latter; but this is very near to the border line of speculative insurance. See INSURANCE, and consult the authorities there cited. earnings of hired labor, and frequently the meaning of the term is still further restricted so as to exclude the earnings of professional labor, such earnings being known as fees, honoraria, salaries, etc. Economie writers make no distinction between the rewards for the different classes of services, a prima donna's income being regarded as wages just as the income of the day laborer. Furthermore, economists treat as wages a part of the income of a man who works with his own instruments of production, as, for example, a small farmer. The same thing is true of a part of the 'profit' of the entrepreneur who performs the routine work of management. In this sense of the term wages are contrasted with interest (q.v.), rent (q.v.), and profit (q.v.). The four incomes, taken together, make up the whole of the social dividend. NOMINAL AND REAL WAGES. Wages are most frequently paid in money; but sometimes they are paid partially in goods, privileges and advantages which possess a definite money value. In domestic service, for example, the money value of board, lodging, etc., must be added to actual money payments to give the true wage. Wages thus expressed in terms of money are called nominal wages. To estimate the true welfare of the laborer, given the rate of nominal wages, it is necessary to take into account the purchasing power of money. Nominal wages, reduced to terms of purchasing power, are termed real wages. The importance of the distinction becomes apparent when one attempts to compare ferences in money wages signify nothing, unless the position of labor in different countries. Difchasing power of money. The distinction is even we are able to estimate differences in the purannual wages of a hind in the thirteenth century, more important in historical study. The nominal according to Thorold Rogers, amounted to 35s. 8d., less than one-twentieth of the nominal wages 1891, according to the British Labor Commisof agricultural labor in modern England (£39 in sion). It is certain that real wages have not increased in anything like the same proportion. THE THEORY OF WAGES. The earliest school of scientific economists, the Physiocrats (q.v.), taught that wages naturally afford the laborer no more than a bare subsistence. The competition of laborers and the strategic advantage of the employer, it was believed, made this result inevitable. Adam Smith advanced a similar view, admitting, however, that in societies in which wealth is increasing wages may exceed the minimum of subsistence. The effect of Malthus's Essay on Population was to confirm the view that wages are naturally limited to mere subsistence. The alleged tendency of population to outrun subsistence appeared to demonstrate conclusively that any temporary rise in wages above the necessary minimum would soon be overcome by increase in population. Ricardo held in the main a similar view, but he admitted that the comforts to which a laboring class had become accustomed could not be withdrawn without a slackening in increase of population. The natural price of labor Ricardo defines as "that price which is necessary to enable the laborers, one with another, to subsist, and to perpetuate their race, without either increase or diminution." This theory was adopted by the Socialists as a correct explanation of wages under a capitalistic régime, |