The

already mentioned the airs which severally cause retching, winking, hunger, yawning, and fattening. The five gross elements are the five subtile elements, when they have become so divided and combined that each of them retains a preponderating portion of itself, and consequently of the quality of which it is the substratum, and also contains smaller portions of the other subtile elements, and the qualities of which they are the substrata. From these gross elements then arises the world. The soul, when existing in the body, is incased in a succession of 'sheaths.' The first or interior sheath consists of buddhi, associated with the organs of perception; the second, of manas, associated with the organs of action; and the third, of the vital airs, together with the organs of action. These three sheaths constitute the subtile body of the soul, which attends the soul in its transmigrations. The collective totality of such subtile bodies is the supreme soul, as regarded in its relation to the world. fourth and exterior sheath of the soul is composed of the gross elements; and the collective aggregate of such gross bodies is the gross body of the deity. This whole development being the result of ignorance, the soul frees itself from its error by understanding that the different stages in which this development appears do not represent real or absolute truth; and when its error has completely vanished it ceases to be re-born, and becomes reunited with Brahma, whence it emanated. The difference between esoteric and exoteric Vedanta consists in the ability or non-ability to recognize that Brahma is impersonal, without attributes, and that every soul is all Brahma. This knowledge alone is liberating; but the empiricist, who cannot understand this, may be put in the way of attaining enlightenment by moral and religious practices, such as are enjoined by the Pūrvamimāmsā, as explained above. The doctrine of bhakti, or faith, does not belong to the older Vedanta; it is, however, an interesting feature of the later periods of this philosophy (see VAISHNAVA); and the same observation applies to the doctrine of Māyā (q.v.), or illusion, according to which the world has no reality whatever, but is merely the product of imagination; for the older Vedanta merely teaches that the world is not the truth, but does not deny its material reality.

The oldest work on this philosophy, attributed to Badarayana or to Vyasa (q.v.), called the Brahma-Sutra, consists of four adhyāyas, or lectures, each subdivided into four pādas, or chapters, each pada containing a number of Sutras. The number of the latter is 558, and that of the adhikaranas, or topics treated in them, 191. The most important commentary on this work is the Sāriraka-bhāṣya, by Sankaracarya; and this commentary in its turn has been commented on by a great variety of writers. The text of the Sutras and this commentary were edited at Calcutta, 1818; and the text with this commentary, and a gloss on the latter, by Govindananda, in the Bibliotheca Indica, by Vidyaratna (Calcutta, 1863). The Sutra and commentary were translated into German by Paul Deussen (Leipzig, 1887). Among elemenary treatises on the Vedanta, the most popular is the Vedantasāra, by Sadananda, which, with the commentary of Ramakrishna Tirtha, was edited

at Calcutta in 1829, and with this and another commentary by Nrisinhasarasvati, at Calcutta in 1849. It was edited and translated also by Ballantyne, A Lecture on the Vedanta, Embracing the Text of the Vedanta Sāra (Allahabad, 1850), who also translated the beginning of the BrahThe work was ma-Sutras. edited also by

Jacob (Bombay, 1894). A very useful compendium of the Adhikaraṇas, or topics, is the Adhikaraṇamata, by Bharatitirtha, which, with the commentary of Anandachandra-Vedantavagisa, was edited at Calcutta in 1862, and as an appendix to the Brahma-Sutras, with extracts from this commentary in the Bibliotheca Indica (Calcutta, 1863). More recently Thibaut has published the Sutras with a valuable introduction in the Sacred Books of the East (vols. xxxiv. and Xxxviii., Oxford, 1890-96), and the system has been explained by Deussen in his System des Vedanta (Leipzig, 1883), the best complete exposition of the system, to which may be added the explanation of the system in Müller, Six Systems of Indian Philosophy (New York, 1899).

VED DAS. A people of Southeastern Ceylon, who have sometimes been regarded, chiefly upon somatic and osteological grounds, as constituting a separate race of mankind. The Veddas are one of the most primitive of human types, representing, perhaps, the original stock which, traveling to the north, produced the Dravidian peoples of Southern Hindustan, and going to the south gave rise to the Australians. The features of the Veddas are Hindu rather than Negroid or Mongoloid, while the hair is jet-black, wavy, and frequently curly, but never kinky. They are somewhat darker in color than the neighboring Singhalese. They are of slender build, erect carriage, and small stature (full-grown males about five feet). A noteworthy characteristic of the Veddas is their monogamous form of marriage. Their honesty, hospitality, morality, and good nature are praised by those who have come to know them. They have their primitive songs and dances, but their religious ideas are not much in evidence. They use the fire-drill and have bows and arrows of their own make, but obtain their arrow-heads and axes from the Singhalese, with whom the more secluded Veddas traffic by a sort of dumb-show. From the Singhalese also they have obtained written charms, and occasionally a palm-leaf book serving as an oracle or fetish. The "Village Veddas' are largely vegetarians, but the 'Rock Veddas' hunt birds and animals. The Veddas still existing are divided into three classes. The 'Coast Veddas' of Balticaloa, who have taken on something of civilization, associate freely with their Singhalese neighbors, devote themselves to fishing, and in appearance only differ from the primitive Singhalese living in the same region. The Village Veddas of the wooded lowlands, known as the Bintenne, are nomadic harvesters of the products of the jungle, making an attempt at building huts, and collecting together in family groups. The most primitive and secluded are the Rock Veddas, as they are called from their cave-life in the jungles of the Badulla and Nilgala hills. They live chiefly by hunting, almost never come in contact with the Singhalese, and do not associate with each other in a tribal life. but band together only in small family groups.

Peregrino contains also four autos (religious dramas) and a list of more than 200 plays that he had already composed. With the Jerusalén conquistada (published 1609) he undertook to surpass Tasso; but the epic of the Italian is in every way superior to Lope's poem.

After some works of minor importance, such as the Soliloquios published under the name of Gabriel Padecopeo, there came his beautiful religious pastoral, Pastores de Belén. After the death of his second wife (1612) he took holy orders in 1614. His piety appears to have been sincere even if his life was not blameless, and he gave renewed expression to his religious feelings in the Triunfo de la fé en el Japón (1618). He essayed the prose tale in four stories, Las fortunas de Diana, El desdichado por la honra, La prudente venganza, and Guzmán el Bravo. The Triunfos divinos is a collection of religious lyrics, and the Corona trágica (1627) is a religious epic intended as a defense of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots. As a poetical catalogue and eulogy of more than 300 Spanish poets, he composed his Laurel de Apolo, which can hardly be considered as a model of just criticism. The Dorotea (1632) is a prose romance in dramatic form, in which the author undoubtedly embodied many personal experiences; on this account its biographical value has been somewhat stressed. It was a favorite work with Lope himself. Under the pseudonym of "the licenciado Tomé Burguillos" he produced in 1634 certain Rimas and the mock-remoic poem Gatomaquia. This is both witty and interesting.

Lope was a poet of great versatility. He essayed nearly every kind of writing, but it is on the stage that his genius showed itself in many ways unexcelled. While his dramatic work is impaired by many imperfections, his faults are atoned for by his exuberant invention, by the skill with which he develops character, and by the unfailing spiritedness of his dialogue. His fertility is unparalleled. He is supposed to have written between 1500 and 1800 plays (comedias), in addition to several hundred autos (religious pieces) and entremeses (interludes). Of these there are extant about 400 comedias and about 40 autos. In the comic and the tragic vein, Lope treated all manner of subjects-historical, legendary, picaresque, religious, and those that have to do with every-day life. It was he who gave the greatest develop ment to the stock comic character called the

gracioso; and he first gave dramatic emphasis to the pundonor, or point of honor, as an allpervading principle of Spanish cultured life. Of his many pieces the following may be given special mention: El castigo sin venganza; Porfiar hasta morir; La estrella de Sevilla, which is one of the best of all; El mejor alcalde el Rey; El acero de Madrid: La esclava de su galán; El perro del hortelano; La boba para los otros y discreta para sí; Los cautivos de Argel; Si no vieran las mujeres; El principe perfeto; Los Tellos de Meneses; and La fuente Ovejuna.

For printed editions of Lope's works, consult the Colección de las obras sueltas de Lope de Vega (21 vols., Madrid, 1876-79); the plays and other works contained in vols. xxiv., XXXV., xxxvii., xli., and xlii. of the Biblioteca de autores españoles (ib., 1859 et seq.) ; Comedias inéditas(ib., 1873); La Dorotea, acción en prosa (ib., 1886);

and especially the definitive edition of his Obras, publicadas por la Real Academia Española, which, begun at Madrid, 1890, has prefixed to its first volume the Nueva biografía of C. A. de la Barrera, and, carried on under the editorship of M. Menéndez y Pelayo, who prepares the Observaciones preliminares, has already reached the twelfth volume. Consult also V. Fox (Lord Holland), Some Account of the Life and Writings of Lope Félix de Vega Carpio (London, 1806, and again 1817); Fitzmaurice-Kelly, A History of Spanish Literature (New York, 1898); Farinelli, Grillparzer und Lope de Vega (Berlin, 1894); Dorer, Die Lope de Vega Litteratur in Deutschland (ib., 1877); Forster, Some French and Spanish Men of Letters (London, 1891); Grillparzer, Studien ueber das spanische Theater, in his Werke, vol. viii. (Stuttgart, 1871); G. H. Lewes, The Spanish Drama: Lope de Vega and Calderon (London, 1846); Ludwig, Lope de Vega's Dramen aus dem karolingischen Sagenkreise (Berlin, 1898); Wurzbach, Lope de Vega (Leipzig, 1898); and Menéndez y Pelayo, Estudios de critica literaria, serie ii. (Madrid, 1895).

VEGETABLE COLORS. A term used to denote natural vegetable dyes as distinguished from mineral colors and those prepared by chemical processes such as the coal-tar colors. They include heart woods, barks, roots, dried leaves and berries, lichens, etc., and though not as much employed as before the introduction of artificial coloring substances, they still are extensively used in dyeing. The more important colors will be found described under their own heads. These include: Red, brazilwood, sandalwood, madder, safflower, archil, and kermes; yellow, old fustic and young fustic, quercitron, Persian berries, arnatto, and tumeric; blue, indigo, woad, logwood, and litmus; green, chlorophyl and tokao or Chinese green; brown, catechu and kino. These dyestuffs must be extracted, and for that purpose the dye woods are cut or ground into small chips or powder and then either cured or fermented or the dye extracted by heating with water or boiling, while in some cases the coloring matter is subsequently concentrated. All of these processes are apt to involve in addition chemical treatment of one kind or other. For the use of vegetable colors in dyeing, reference should be made to that article, and especially to the table containing a list of the natural dyestuffs with the artificial coloring matters that have in many cases displaced them. See also COAL-TAR COLORS; MINERAL COLORS. VEGETABLE IVORY. See IVORY, VEGETA

chiefly of salts of various organic acids, and also phosphates and chlorides. Vegetables contain various organic acids, ethers, and other similar bodies which are not estimated separately in proximate analysis like those quoted above, but are included in the group nitrogen-free extract. They are largely accountable for flavors, though various salts and sugars also have a similar influence. In few cases have these flavors been studied chemically. (See FOOD.) When vegetables are cooked the chief change in percentage composition is in the water content. They may become drier if baked or fried, or more moist if stewed or boiled. The various chemical bodies are modified by cooking. Thus, albumens are coagulated, starches are to some extent broken down into simpler substances, and other changes take place which are not so well understood. Besides the loss in paring vegetables and otherwise preparing them, there may be a loss during cooking. For instance, when cabbage is boiled the water extracts nearly half of the total food material, which, being ordinarily thrown away, is lost. When potatoes are boiled the loss may be considerable, being greatest when they are peeled and soaked before boiling and least when they are boiled with the skins on. The materials lost in

boiling vegetables are albuminoid and non-albuminoid nitrogen, mineral matter, and sugars. Little starch is lost, except that accidentally removed by abrasion. In the case of vegetables like carrots, which contain a fairly large amount of sugar, the amount extracted in boiling has been found nearly to equal 1 pound of sugar in a bushel of carrots. In the ordinary household such losses are not important, but where rigid economy is necessary they are worth consideration.

Although fresh vegetables contain a high percentage of water, they are nevertheless valuable articles of diet. Like other bulky foods, they are eaten in large quantities and thus may furnish a considerable proportion of the total nutrients in the daily diet. This is especially true of vegetables, like potatoes, which contain fairly large amounts of starch. Combined with some concentrated foods, especially those which contain much protein (eggs, cheese, meat, etc.), vegetables contribute to a well-balanced diet.

From a large number of statistics collected in connection with the nutrition investigations conducted by the United States Department of Agriculture it appears that vegetables (other than dried legumes) furnish about 21 per cent. of the total food, 6 per cent. of the total protein, and 13 per cent. of the total carbohydrates in the diet of the average American family.

The cost of vegetables varies with the season, rarity, distance from market, and other factors. High-priced vegetables may increase the cost of living out of all proportion to the nutrients they furnish, though if the purchaser is not compelled to economize this use may perhaps be justified on the ground that they render the diet more attractive. So far as can be judged by the investigations on record, to a great variety of vegetables is not necessary to health, and the man of › limited means may provide as wholesome a diet with the aid of the inexpensive vegetables as the man who can afford to purchase hothouse delicacies. Vegetables are very useful in giving variety to the diet, a value which often cannot

be measured in dollars and cents. They frequently stimulate the appetite for other foods. The variety of fresh vegetables eaten, as well as the quantity, has been increased in recent years, owing to increased facilities for growing out of season, marketing, transportation, and storage.

Canned vegetables, which are annually becoming more popular, are essentially cooked vege tables in which fermentation is prevented by sterilization and the exclusion of air. Evaporated vegetables, which are also popular, especially for outfitting camps and expeditions, are practically concentrated foods which need only water and cooking to render them edible. Many of them are used in the ordinary household for soups, etc. Besides being used as food, various vegetables are employed for flavoring and for garnishing. Some, like potatoes, are used for the manufacture of starch.

See United States Department of Agriculture Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 28 (revised), Composition of American Food Materials (Washington, 1899); Bulletin 43, Losses in Boiling Vegetables (ib., 1897); Farmers' Bulletin 121, Beans, Peas, and Other Legumes as Food (Washington, 1900).

VEGETABLE SPONGE. The netted fibrous interior of the mature fruit of several species of Luffa, more particularly of Luffa ægyptiaca and Luffa acutangula. The fibrous mass contained in this fruit is of a sponge-like nature, and when macerated is much used in bathing and for scrubbing. In appearance the plants resemble cucumber vines. They belong to the family Cucurbitaceæ. The fruits from which the sponge is obtained are gourd-like and 1 to 2 feet long. In the tropics they grow much longer. The centre of the vegetable sponges is like that of the cucumber.

VEGETABLE TISSUE. The structural substance of plants. It is composed of cells which have a common origin and law of development and may consist of one or more of the tissue elements such as parenchyma and its various subdivisions and prosenchyma and its diverse forms.

VEGETARIANISM. The practice or doctrine of living upon foods obtained from the vegetable world, to the exclusion of animal food. In all ages there have been idealists who have advocated an exclusively vegetable diet, chiefly on ethical grounds—among whom may be mentioned Pythagoras, Plato, Plutarch, Rousseau, Shelley, and Swedenborg, but they never had any extensive following. The modern vegetarian movement took its rise about the middle of the nineteenth century. The vegetarian idea was best received in England, where the principal cities are represented by their societies, and where there are many vegetarian restaurants.

The arguments in favor of vegetarianism may be summarized as follows. On physiological grounds it is urged that the formation of the teeth and the intestines in man prove that he was not intended to be a carnivorous, but a fruit and vegetable eating animal. The length of the intestine shows him to be midway between the herbivora and the carnivora, and neither fitted for digesting grasses, which require a long intestine, nor flesh, which needs a short one, but nearer akin to the fruit-eating apes. It is maintained that a vegetable diet is best for man