of

pointed, and also by countenancing an attack which was made on the Federalist judges through impeachment. (See CHASE, SAMUEL.) He began his term of office with the extreme theories of the strict constructionists as his guide, as was shown by the steps which were promptly taken to bring about the abrogation of the system of internal revenue (April, 1802), and to reduce to five years the term of residence requisite for naturalization (April, 1802), as also by the repeal, in December, 1803, of the national bankruptcy law of 1800. Nevertheless, the force circumstances finally led Jefferson to adopt and carry through measures that involved as liberal an interpretation of the Constitution as any that the Federalists had ever advanced. The first of these measures was the purchase from France in 1803 of Louisiana, which had recently been acquired by France from Spain. (See SAN ILDEFONSO, TREATY OF; LOUISIANA PURCHASE.) The annexation of this territory determined permanently the control of the Mississippi, and accordingly was thoroughly approved in the trans-Alleghany regions; but there was immediately raised not only the question of the Government's power so to acquire territory, but also the question whether the Government had acted within its constitutional powers in concluding a treaty which guaranteed eitizenship to former subjects of France, and there developed a vigorous though unavailing opposition to the purchase among the members of Congress from New England. The application of a characteristic Republican policy was, however, illustrated in the marked tendency to minimize the importance of the functions of the National Government, and to render unimportant such departments as those of war and the navy. The very material reduction of the national forces was accomplished without effective opposition in view of the improved financial condition which was supposed to be secured by such a course. Any such justification was soon overbalanced by the pressing need of an efficient navy occasioned by the war with Tripoli (1801-05), in which Preble and Decatur won laurels for the American flag. (See BARBARY POWERS, WARS WITH THE.) In 1803 Ohio was admitted into the Union; and in December, 1803, Congress passed the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution, which was ratified in 1804, providing that the electoral college should vote for Presidential and Vice-Presidential candidates separately. (See CONSTITUTION.) In 1804 Jefferson was reëlected President, receiving all the electoral votes except those of Connecticut, Delaware, and Maryland, which were cast for the Federalist, Charles C. Pinckney, of South Carolina. George Clinton (q.v.), of New York, was elected Vice-President.

Jefferson's second administration began with overwhelming Republican majorities in both Houses of Congress. The Napoleonic wars had begun anew in 1803, and it was impossible for such a struggle not to affect materially the interests of the United States. The commerce of America was highly prosperous, her ships enjoying much of the carrying trade of Europe; but in May, 1806, England declared a blockade from Brest to the Elbe, and Bonaparte, in November, decreed the blockade of the coasts of the United Kingdom. (See CONTINENTAL SYSTEM; ORDERS IN COUNCIL.) The maritime rights of neutrals

were not at that time clearly defined, and the Americans suffered at the hands of both belligerents, American vessels being seized and searched with great insolence and discourtesy for contraband of war and being searched also by the British for British subjects. The right of expatriation was not then recognized by England, and those suspected of having been born on British soil were, in accordance with the doctrine, ‘once a subject always a subject,' impressed into the British naval service. The British frigate Leopard, meeting the American frigate Chesapeake, June 22, 1807, demanded four of her men, and on refusal fired into her, and the Chesapeake was forced to strike her flag, the incident creating intense excitement and resentment, and British ships being thenceforth forbidden to enter American harbors. See CHESAPEAKE, THE.

In December, 1807, a further step was taken in the famous Embargo Act (see EMBARGO), which forbade American vessels to leave for foreign ports, and foreign vessels to take cargoes into American ports. This measure, which was intended to punish England and France for their contempt of American rights upon the sea, almost destroyed the commerce of the United States, and was violently opposed by the Federalists, especially in New England and New York, where the shipping interest was strongest. During Jefferson's administration Aaron Burr attempted to carry out a filibustering scheme against Mexico, and in addition he was charged with an attempt at the dismemberment of the Union, and in 1807 was tried for treason at Richmond, Va., but was acquitted. (See BURR, AARON.) Jefferson's administration was also marked by the Lewis and Clark expedition (q.v.) across the continent to the Pacific (1804-06); by the passage of a bill in 1806 for the construction of a national road from Cumberland, Md., to Ohio, the first important internal improvement measure (see CUMBERLAND ROAD); the establishment of the United States Military Academy at West Point, and the successful introduction of steam navigation by Fulton. (See STEAM NAVIGATION.) Another important event of Jefferson's administration was the passage of an act of Congress in 1807 abolishing the slave trade from January 1, 1808.

Following the example of Washington, Jefferson declined to be a candidate for a third term, and in the election of 1808 James Madison, of Virginia, was elected President, and George Clinton, of New York, Vice-President. Charles C. Pinckney was again the Federalist candidate for President. In February, 1809, owing to the threatening attitude of the New England States, which seemed to menace the Government with secession, the Embargo was relaxed and the Non-Intercourse Act was substituted for it, repealing the provisions of the Embargo, except as against England and France.

VI. and VII. ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADI

January 13, 1813; James Monroe (acting), September 27, 1814; William H. Crawford, Georgia, August 1, 1815. Secretary of the Navy, Paul Hamilton, South Carolina, March 7, 1809; William Jones, Pennsylvania, January 12, 1813; B. W. Crowninshield, Massachusetts, December 19, 1814. Attorney-General, C. A. Rodney, continued; William Pinkney, Maryland, December 11, 1811; Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, February 10, 1814. Postmaster-General, Gideon Granger, continued; Return J. Meigs, Ohio, March 17, 1814.

The beginning of Madison's administration witnessed a further straining of relations between the United States and England. Though the acts of France had been, in the main, no less unjust and arrogant than those of England, she had never attempted the impressment of American seamen, which had been made easy for England by identity of language and by the fact that, in some cases, British deserters were actually found upon American ships. Moreover, the Republican Party, now in power, had been traditionally the friend of France. Hence, as time went on, Eng land was especially singled out for American dislike, and this feeling increased when the West complained that British agents were exciting disaffection on the frontiers and intriguing with the Indians, color being given to this latter charge by the hostility of some of the Indians and Tecumseh's attempt to form an Indian confederation. See TECUMSEH; TIPPECANOE, BATTLE OF.

In 1810 England and France each professed a readiness to repeal the decrees that had so hampered American commerce, if the other would do so first. France then revoked conditionally the Berlin and Milan decrees, and in 1812 revoked them unconditionally, dating the revocation back one year. Meanwhile, an aggressive element had risen to prominence in the councils of the Republican Party. Henry Clay, of Kentucky, was Speaker of the House, and John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, on the floor of the House was the leader of the majority. Under the impulse of these two brilliant and impetuous spirits, the party in power became transformed into a war party. Acts were passed to enlist soldiers, to organize the militia, to enlarge the navy, and to prepare in every way for war. The adoption of a war policy was urged upon the President, who was himself reluctant to adopt it. England having refused to modify her policy toward neutrals, an embargo upon all American shipping was proclaimed for sixty days as a preliminary to the opening of hostilities; and on June 1st Madison sent a message to Congress in which, after reviewing the American grievances against England, he recommended a formal declaration of war. The chief grounds for this action, as given by Madison, were the impressment of American seamen, the extension of the right of search to United States war vessels, the 'paper blockades' established by the British Orders in Council, and the alleged efforts of Great Britain to persuade the Northwestern Indians to attack the Americans. On the 18th Congress formally declared war. Five days later, and before the declaration reached England, the British Government withdrew its objectionable Orders in Council, but although attempts were then made to restore peace, reconciliation at that time was impossible. The disparity in power between the United States and

Great Britain at this time was enormous, and except that the latter was still engaged in her conflict with Napoleon, a declaration of war would have seemed little less than foolhardy. In 1810 the population of the United States was only about 7,250,000, while that of Great Britain was fully 18,500,000. Great Britain, moreover, had vastly superior resources at her disposal, was organized for war, while the United States was not, and, besides having a large and highly disciplined army, was the acknowledged mistress of the seas. In general, the war went against the Americans on land, though the British were decisively repulsed at New Orleans; and the warfare on sea demonstrated the superiority, vessel for vessel, of the American to the British navy. Gradually, however, by reason of her vastly larger fleet, Great Britain defeated the American vessels in detail or drove them under the shelter of forts. The American naval successes were, nevertheless, of such number and of such tactical importance as to add greatly to the standing of the United States as a naval power. Congress had voted to raise 25,000 enlisted soldiers, 50,000 volunteers, and 100,000 militia. General William Hull with 2000 men at Detroit invaded Canada. but on being met by a small force of British and Indians under General Brock, recrossed the river, and on August 16th surrendered at Detroit without resistance. A second invasion of Canada was made in October, 1812, near Niagara Falls, by General Van Rensselaer. One thousand American militia stormed the heights of Queenstown, and the British general, Brock, was killed, but reinforcements arriving, the heights were retaken, and nearly all the Americans were driven back with great loss. At this time some of the militia refused to cross into Canada, upon the ground that the Government had no right to send the militia across the frontier. The Federalist Party, opposed to the war, defended the doctrine, and General Van Rensselaer resigned in disgust.

American disasters on the land were, however, compensated for by victories at sea. On August 19th the United States frigate Constitution (q.v.) captured the British frigate Guerrière; on October 18th the Wasp (American) took the Frolic (British); on October 25th the United States captured the Macedonian; and on December 29th the Constitution took the Java. The Americans, in most cases, had the larger ships and heavier ordnance; but the immense disparity in the losses showed also superior seamanship and gunnery. American privateers, furthermore, took during the war, it is estimated, 300 British vessels and 3000 prisoners.

In May, 1812, Madison had been renominated for the Presidency, with Eldridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, as the Republican candidate for Vice-President. In the ensuing election Madison defeated De Witt Clinton by an electoral vote of 128 to 89, while Gerry defeated Jared Ingersoll by an electoral vote of 131 to 86.

In April, 1813, an American army of 1700 men under General Henry Dearborn captured York, now Toronto, and Dearborn having been relieved, Generals Wilkinson and Hampton undertook to capture Montreal, but met with no success. An attempt of the British general, Prevost, on Sackett's Harbor in May was repulsed; the British squadron on Lake Erie, consisting of 6 vessels