fill up the pauses and conceal the transitions of the con versation. In the Second Dialogue, the writer divides the course of study which is recommended to a man of letters, into three parts, and treats first of elementary studies. Logic, Mathematics, Drawing, Chronology, Geography, the Theory of Law, and the chief Antient and Living Languages, are coolly reckoned, one and all, among those elementary acquirements, without the mastery of which a man must not expect to be able to begin to be any thing in life. As an introduction to logic, M. DELEUZE recommends Dumarsais. Of mathematics, he says so little, that we rather suspect him of being a feeble amateur; and of classing the school-boy attainments of arithmetic, book-keeping, and a little algebra and geometry, among the sublimer acquirements. Of drawing, which is more cultivated and better understood on the continent than in Great Britain, he speaks in an unusual manner: passes. Aristus.-Well; I will tell you how to make a great progress in this art of design, without any master; or rather with the aid of an infallible one, who is always at hand. Get a canvas, or a board, painted black, or rather a slate about three feet square, and use a white pencil. By the help of a ruler, draw on a similar board, which is to stand beside you, a horizontal line. This is your first model. Then, still with your ruler and compasses, divide regularly this line by four or five perpendiculars. Copy this second model, and copy it repeatedly, until you can rapidly trace the verticals and the horizontal as regularly intersected as if you had employed the scale and comNext, trace on your model-board an angle of forty-five degrees, and successively the other angles, and copy them in the same manner. You will thus accustom your eye to judge of the relative acuteness of angles. In order to verify your progress, have recourse to the rule and compasses; this is the infallible, the never absent preceptor, of whom I was speaking. From angles pass to the different sorts of triangles by the same process; and then your course of instruction is completed for right lines. You can imitate all that can be done with them. Next, as to curve-lines. Begin by the circle; which you must draw repeatedly, until your hand be suffi ciently exercised to describe it with one stroke, and to place a point in the center. Then pass on to other forms of curves, and thence to complex geometrical figures. When you have acquired that justness of eye, and that precision of hand, which enable you to describe these forms, without instruments, nearly as well as with their assistance, you have learned as much as you would have acquired in two years at the academy, and can already copy an architectural design. Such are the first principles; let us extend their application. Hitherto you have imitated only figures traced on a plane surface; your eye must now be accustomed to pursue contours which project or recede. Choose, to begin, the simplest forms: a vase, for instance. Eudoxus. Eudoxus,-Here the gradation is abrupt. To pass from the imitation of drawings to that of objects is difficult; and I have now no compasses to correct my errors. Aristus. By choosing at first objects of a simple form, you will easily perceive whether you have well copied the outline; and you may verify, by means of small squares, your performance. -- Eudoxus. — I know that by stretching a net of strait threads across a pane of glass, so as to divide it like a draught-board; by making a similar division on the paper; and then by placing in each corresponding square of the paper that part of the object or landscape which appears through the subdivision on the pane, a drawing may be executed in tolerable perspective: but this gives a timidity of manner. • Aristus. I do not advise you to employ the net of squares in making your drawing, but in verifying the exactness of drawings when made. Nothing is so important as to detect every error of the eye. Of the illusions of optics you must accustom yourself not to be the dupe and you will accomplish this only by frequently employing some infallible standard to ascertain in what degree you can see correctly, and record rightly what you have The seen. camera obscura will be perhaps the best instrument for this purpose. Take some object of a definite and measurable form, a prism, a pyramid, a cube, or a sphere; lay it on the table, enlighten it with a taper, and attempt to copy not only its shape, but its degrees of shade. There are mathematical methods of determining the forms which such objects assume in perspective, and the length of the shadows projected. Draw from what you see; correct the drawing by measurement; and repeat the operation, until the results coincide. When you are sure of having acquired great precision of glance, then first begin to attempt the human figure. In order to learn to correct the drawing, attend lectures on anatomy; fourteen or fifteen will suffice to direct and guide you. Something you should read about the theory of proportions. I approve the Petit Traité de Jean Cousins. There remains one more faculty to exercise and to strengthen, the memory. That draftsman is incomplete, who cannot preserve so distinct a recollection of an object as to depict it when it is absent. • Eudoxus-Little attention is paid in schools to this department of the art but it is in practical life eminently useful. • Aristus. Methods may he found to accelerate your progress. Suppose that you have chosen the figure of Antinous for your model. Draw on your slate the mere outline complete, and with scrupulous exactness. When the drawing is finished, rub it out, and begin it afresh from memory; recurring to the model only for the traits which you have forgotten. When you have learnt the figure by heart (if we may so apply the phrase) cover it with a veil, and draw without it, but compare the finished drawing with the figure, and correct carefully by the model. In a little time, you will find that you know by heart whatever you have once drawn with the pencil; and that you can replace, from the mental store-house, the portfolio of which accident or force may rob you. Every trial speeds progress. - In outline, you are now complete: but it is time to take some lessons of a master, in order to acquire the more expeditious methods of ap - Hh 2 plying plying color, light, and shade, so as to give a picturesque effect to your delineations. Valenciennes, one of our best landscape-painters, has written a Traité de Perspective, which (I believe) suggested to me some of the counsels that I have been giving.' The conversation then turns off to new topics; among others, to languages, geography, and common-place-books. The pupil (p.157.) is advised to learn Hebrew, in order that he may enter into the floating questions of scripture-criticism; and he is advised (p. 183.) not to learn Chess, because it requires an application and combination of intellectual effort, which ought to be reserved for things less futile. It is recommended to him (p.186.) to adopt a method of correcting his style memoriter, or internally, without bringing his words to paper; which is stated to be an economy both of time and toil. For the construction of common-place-books, the author suggests (1.) the use of single sheets, so that any one when spoiled can be withdrawn; (2.) the preservation of a broad margin at each edge; the one, to contain references which connect the extract with an alphabetic index, and with other extracts; while the other margin is to contain annotations; (3.) to be regular in sending to the binder a certain quantity of this essence of study. The Third Dialogue treats on the division of sciences, of their origin, foundation, and connection, and of the order in which they ought to be learned :- on the observation of fact; — and on the value of theory as an artificial memory. Then follow specific commendations of mineralogy, botany, zoology, anatomy, entomology, physique, (natural philosophy,) chemistry, technology or the mechanic arts, practical astronomy, and geology. Some limits are hinted, beyond which the gentleman is not expected to extend his knowlege of these sciences. Travelling is discussed, and admitted to be essential to a polished character. Reflections on method, and on the causes of error, terminate the conversation. Dialogue IV. is introductory to the study of history. Father Petau's Rationarium Temporum is still considered as the best skeleton of universal history. Among the modern books, M. DELEUZE distinguishes with applause Koch's Tableau des Révolutions de l'Europe, lately published at Paris in three octavo volumes*.-Some singular counsels here occur; for instance, to read Diodorus Siculus on the primæval times, before Herodotus; in consequence of which process, those foolish dreams of the superficial antiquities of the age of Augustus, of which the sounder literature of the age of Alexander knew nothing, will pass for truth in the memory. Bossuet's division of history See Rev. Vol. 56. N. S. p. 509. (Appendix.) · into periods is justly criticized, as inconvenient and unnatural. The author recommends his pupils, wisely, we think, to read the master-pieces of literature of each country, while engaged in the study of its history. Almost every nation has its Biblio theque portatif, which contains in a little compass the essence of its fine literature.-Speaking of Italian antiquities, Dempster De Hetruria regali is strongly praised; and in referring to Constantinopolitan antiquities, Hanke's Scriptores Historia Byzantine is as decidedly applauded. The topic of Antient History occupies the whole discussion. Volume II. opens with a fifth Dialogue, in which the inexhaustible subject of history is again on the carpet, or rather in the air; for our peripatetics stroll abroad for the sake of the surrounding scenery. The middle ages are now introduced. The reign of Theodoric fixes attention as having exhibited the first honourable specimen of barbarian sway, and having thus become the real model of the independent sovereignties established by the Goths in the north of Europe. The pupil is advised to peruse Cassiodorus, Boethius, and Salvian; they were favourite classics among the learned who were attached to the Charlemagnes and the Alfreds, and thus have powerfully influenced the jurisprudence and philosophy of the north. On the origin of chivalry, short observations are made; and the essay of Heeren, On the Crusades, is mentioned as illustrative of the subject. The abolition of domestic slavery is more extensively considered. Pottgiesser, de Statu Servorum, is distinguished as an excellent treatise. A sigh is heaved over the negligence of Arabic scholars, who might translate for public information several writers concerning the crusades and the middle ages, that are known to slumber in our libraries. The history of the establishment of borough-corporations, of elective magistracies, and of companies of traders, is indicated as still requiring the researches of the antiquary. A passage is also mentioned in the work of Guibert, the Abbé of Nogent, who wrote De Vita Sud, in which he describes the first formation of the Commune, or common council of Laon. It was a voluntary, and somewhat revolutionary, confederacy of the citizens, modelled on pre-existing town-governments. It is remarkable,' says the author, that at this period the Jews were those who chiefly acquired distinction in science and letters. About the middle of the twelfth century, many appear who are worthy to figure in the history of the human mind, of which they in some degree fill up a lacuna. The first is Aben-Esra, one of the best scripture-commentators, a skilful philologer, as his Elegantia See Review, Vol. LX. p. 466. N. S. (Appendix:) Grammatica prove, and a learned astronómer. For this last science he founded a school, in which Abraham Cheia and Abraham Nasi distinguished themselves, and in which was formed Isaac Abensid, the chief author of the Alphonsine Tables. David Kimchi of Narbonne, and Solomon Jarchi of Troyes in Champagne, displayed much erudi tion. The latter, who was called by the Jews the prince of commentators, had travelled in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The poets of this nation, such as Alcharisi, Hallari, and Joseph Hadaiian of Cordova, were superior to their cotemporaries ; ➡ and lastly the celebrated Moses, son of Maimon, who was born at Cordova, and fled for refuge to Egypt, was of all the rabbies the most enlightened and best informed. A portion of the spirit of Aristotle must be conceded to him, when we regard his numerous writings, and especially his More-Nevochim, or Doubtful Questions, of which Buxtorf has given a Latin version. This last work will be sufficient to make you acquainted with the philosophy and theology of the Jews. In casting your eyes over the works of Aben-Esra, you may ascertain how much of criticism and of literature the rabbies pre. served in a period of ignorance.' Some comments succeed on the important discoveries of gun-powder and printing; and the use of middle in modern history. The Hispania Illustrata of Schott is praised for assem bling the more valuable native original chroniclers, The Sixth Dialogue proposes to enter the crowded square of modern history. It begins, however, by discussing the rules of historical criticism; and it chooses for an example the account of Christ which is given by Josephus. M. DELEUZE declares against the authenticity of the passage. We have often supported the same opinion, on the best evidence. Lardner gives many reasons for supposing that testimony to be a gross forgery; and Warburton expresses contempt for the understanding of those who believe it to be genuine. Yet it has been argued that Josephus was himself an aspirant to the high priesthood of Jerusalem, as the legal representative of the Asmonæan family; that Titus and Vespasian cannot be supposed to have. acted without his advice, when they proscribed Simeon (Eusebius, liv. iii. c. 12.) and the other claimants of the house of David; and that it exactly suited the purpose of Josephus to recognize, as the prophesied Christ, that one member of the royal family in whose pedigree there was a flaw: consequently, that it is probable that such a testimony, as occurs in the Antiquities, should have been drawn up by Josephus. We shall not here pursue the debate. The study of modern history ought to be commenced, this author thinks, by some antiquarian inquiries concerning the origin of those nations which first begin to assert a place in grand events, at the close of the dark ages. The nature of the seed should |