Immigration.

The two principal restrictions on intercourse with foreign nations in 1913 were the tariff and regulations on immigration. For many years the stream of immigrants was hardly restrained at all. Then from 1880 to 1910 numerous laws were passed to exclude convicts, contract laborers, people afflicted with contagious diseases, paupers, anarchists and other undesirable classes. An Immigration Commission, created in 1907, reported in 1910, urging more limitations; especially that adults who were unable to read or write in some language should not be received. In 1913, the Dillingham bill was passed by both Houses upon these general lines. This bill was vetoed by President Taft a few days before the expiration of his term, for the reason given by President Cleveland for vetoing a similar bill in his term, viz., that the education clause would shut out desirable immigrants.

The agitation went on and in January, 1915, both Houses passed the Burnett bill and sent it to President Wilson, who, in his turn, vetoed it. He objected to a clause against the entrance of revolu

tionists because "It seeks to all but close entirely the gates of asylum, which have always been open to those who could find nowhere else the right and opportunity of constitutional agitation for what they conceive to be the natural and inalienable rights of men." He also opposed the

These figures show an astonishing number of departures, due in part to hard times in America, and in part to the European War. In 1914-15 scores of thousands of men were called home to take their places in the various armies. The consequence was a net immigration probably smaller than at any time since 1859.

This discussion on limiting immigration brought out a rivalry between the labor unions, which included many the employers, immigrants, and especially of crude labor. The great steel works, mines, and other large enterprises employed hundreds of thousands of unskilled laborers who earned little at home and were willing to take what seemed to American laborers like small wages. In the view of labor leaders this depressed

the whole labor market. A new labor combination called the I. W. W. (International Workers of the World), which was formed in 1912, sought to organize these unskilled foreigners into a powerful body which might compel the unions of skilled laborers to throw in their lot in one common mass, which should then take over the whole control of industry.

Seamen and Shipping.

Another question of combined labor and commerce was an act for the regulation of merchant seamen, which was passed by the two Houses of Congress in March, 1913, and was killed by a pocket veto of President Taft, on the ground that it conflicted with foreign treaties. The act was revived in 1914 by Senator Robert M. LaFollette, of Wisconsin, passed against formidable opposition, and was signed by President Wilson, March 4, 1915. It secured to seamen shorter hours of labor, enabled them to draw pay in a foreign port and prohibited corporal punishment of every kind. One of the most important provisions was that at least three-fourths of every crew must be able to understand the orders given by the officers.

The purpose of this act was not only to improve the condition of the sailor, but to take away the power of the master of a ship to enforce the specific performance of the sailors' labor contracts. In no other employment, except that of the soldier, could a man be compelled by force to remain

in the employment of any one if he did not choose to work. The threefourths clause was intended to prevent the use of large numbers of Chinese or Lascars on American merchant ships.

During the debate it was freely predieted that the measure would ruin American shipping; and it was shortly announced that the Pacific Mail Steamship Company was about to sell the ships on its trans-Pacific lines. That company, however, had long been unprosperous. The labor men stood firmly on the principle of the bill, and were not at all moved by the argument that if the conditions of life and labor aboard American ships were improved, foreign trade would pass into the hands of nations, such as the Japanese, whose sailors accepted still lower wages and conditions. The movement hoped to compel all foreigners who engaged in American trade to give their men the same advantages.

American shipping was not in a very prosperous condition, except that portion which was engaged in coastwise trade, and was therefore protected from the competition of foreign ships by act of Congress. The greater part of the shipments to and from other continents was carried on in foreign vessels. To aid the American shipowners, moderate mail subsidies were provided by a special act of March 3, 1891. A part of the general system of protection to American industries was to encourage American

shipping which would otherwise feel the loss of trade caused by a high tariff.

The outbreak of the European War brought into relief the small amount of American shipping available, and President Wilson strongly urged that the United States government should itself enter the shipping business. A bill was therefore introduced, in September, 1914, for a shipping corporation in which the United the United States should own the majority of the stock. The immediate demand for private vessels, however, was so great that the shipyards were crowded with orders; and it was difficult to see whence a government merchant fleet could come. The experience of the United States in running its own transports between the Pacific Coast and the Philippines was not encouraging. Nevertheless, President Wilson stood firmly in favor of some such measure. He argued that “ It is not a question of the government monopolizing the field. It should take action to make it certain that transportation at reasonable rates will be promptly provided, even if the carriage is not at first profitable." The idea of special aid to shipping was carried out by an act (September 24, 1914) creating a temporary Bureau of War Risks, to take care of American interests which were endangered by foreign ships of war.

In accordance with Wilson's wishes, a second government shipping bill was introduced and hotly debated

Alongside the debates in Congress on great public measures, ran a group of minor discussions which concerned the smoother running of the government. President Wilson was a civil service reformer and followed the example of every President since the passage of the Pendleton Act of 1882, by enlarging the "classified list,' covering employees who came into office on competitive examination. President Taft, shortly before the end of his term, put 20,000 navy yard employees and the remaining fourthclass postmasters into the classified service. President Wilson (May, 1913) provided competitive tests for future postal appointments, but later refused to renew the appointment of E. M. Morgan, who had come up from the ranks to be postmaster of New York. Congress showed its distaste for the merit system " when a new body of employees was needed for the collection of the income and

for the Federal Reserve Board. In these cases it was careful to leave out the requirement for competitive examinations.

In spite of the reduction of the revenue, Congress continued to make very heavy appropriations. For the year 1912-13, the expenditures were about $684,000,000 (leaving the Post Office out of account); for 1913-14 they were $701,000,000; for 1914-15, $733,000,000. Congress still clung to its system of lack of responsibility shown by appropriating money through eleven different committees, none of which felt bound to consider the probable income of the government. President Taft, through his Commission on Economy and Efficiency, tried hard to bring about a budget, as well as the necessary changes in the system of keeping public accounts. President Wilson paid no particular attention to that subject, though the Chamber of Commerce of the United States urged the reform.

One of the difficulties was the habit of Congress to make up composite bills for public buildings and river and harbor improvements. This system, popularly called the "Pork Barrel," allowed items to be put in for a great variety of small places and improvements by the log-rolling method. Appropriations for rivers and harbors, which in '1911-12 were $31,000,000, rose to $51,000,000 in 1913-14 under the Democratic Congress. The next year, Senator Theodore E. Burton, of Ohio, filibustered

against the pending bill and compelled Congress to cut it down to $27,000,000. The following year (1915) it rose again to $34,000,000. An appropriation in which the whole country was much interested was $2,000,000 for a Lincoln Memorial in Washington, which took the form of a Greek temple with appropriate approaches and surroundings.

Congress also took a destructive interest in the Commerce Court, which was set up by the Tariff Act of 1909, for the purpose of securing quick decisions on cases appealed from the Interstate Commerce Commission to the judicial courts.* The decisions of the Commerce Court proved to be more favorable to the railroads than was expected, although President Taft and his Attorney-General gave the Court their approval. As soon as the Democrats came into power, they again attacked the Court, and in December, 1913, succeeded in abolishing it.