ciently serious. There are at least two possible ameliorations - higher salaries for men, and teachers' pensions. The latter subject has received increasing attention since about 1900, and while in some States "teachers' insurance " or "retirement fund" plans prevail, managed by the teachers themselves, the general trend is toward the very logical conclusion that the authority paying the salaries should pay the pensions also.*

Teachers must themselves be taught, and the growth in the number of normal schools in the last half-century has been larger than the growth in any other form of professional education. At the close of the war there were less than 50; ten years later, 66; and in 1911, 288, both public and private; there are also numerous pedagogical courses in high schools, colleges and universities. In 1911 there were 84,095 students reported in the normal schools; 14,680 pursuing normal courses in public high schools, and 5,246 in private high schools and academies; in colleges and universities, 11,256 in the pedagogical departments; bringing the total up to 115,277. The number of normal school graduates in 1911 was 16,669.

Normal schools were, at their inception, largely "model schools" for training in methods, and lay open to the peril of imitativeness and undue

* W. Preyer, The Mind of the Child (2 vols., 1888-89); Gustave LeBon, The Crowd (1896); Edward A. Ross, Social Psychology, especially the chapters on Suggestibility (1908); Hugo Münsterburg, Psychology and the Teacher (1909); John Dewey, How We Think (1910); Edward L. Thorndyke, The Elements of Psychology (1907); and Edwin A. Kirkpatrick, Genetic Psychology (1909), are among the many valuable and interesting books on this subject.

Butler, Education in the United States, p. 382 et seq.

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among the instrumentalities that keep the modern teacher in line with the increasing demands of a profession which is probably the mightiest existing force for the betterment of man.* It must be said that many of the wonderful advances made in both public and private schools do not apply, or are sadly deficient, in rural schools; and while a great improvement is now taking place, especially through the "consolidation" and township" system, it is true, from the very nature of the case, that the ordinary country school is yet a far cry from the city type. "It is," to quote President Cleveland, dition, not a theory," that confronts the schools in thinly populated districts. Poor or inadequate fieldings, too short school terms, low standards of qualifications for teachers, defective courses of study, inadequate inspection, community indifference, ignorance, parsimony and ultra-conservatism of school boards, impossibility of specialization where pupils are so few, and, worst of all, the incubus of the once settled conviction, now happily passing, that the rural school cannot be as proportionally progressive in its field as the city school in a more fortunate environment, are all responsible factors in this condition. Committee of Twelve," appointed by the National Education Association in 1895, made an exhaustive report

"The

William C. Ruediger, Agencies for the Improvement of Teachers in Service, Bulletin of the Bureau of Education (1911).

two years later that throws much light on the subject; and the problem is being tackled through a multiplicity of special adaptations, of which the model rural school at Macomb, Illinois, is an example, whose purpose is "to take up a typical, needy, inefficient country school and build it up through all obstacles to the greatest possible degree of efficiency for the community in which it is located.”’*

What has been remarked about rural schools may also find partial application, though from a different point of view, to education in the

South. Of course the war made havoc with education as with everything else, so that, at first, recovery was tedious and complicated with bi-racial problems. But with governmental as

well as denominational aid, and the impetus of great funds, to be referred to later, competent leadership is introducing the " New South " to a new educational era, a veritable renaissance, especially in industrial and vocational training.t

Negro education in the South was initiated by the Freedmen's Bureau, created by an act of Congress in 1865 and placed under the management of General O. O. Howard. In the five years of its existence it established 4,239 colored schools throughout the South, with an enrolment of a quarter

*H. N. Loomis, Normal Schools and the Rural School Problem, in the Educational Review (May, 1910).

The subject is fully and interestingly treated in The South in the Building of the Nation, vol. X., part iv., pp. 184-427.

of a million of pupils, and at a cost of $6,513,955. Since then, education of the negro has gone steadily forward, aided by the Federal and State governments, and philanthropic and religious bodies. It now embraces the common school, normal, professional and industrial schools, especially the latter, and extends to the high school and college. The most successful and best known of the negro schools are the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, founded by Samuel T. Armstrong in 1868 (Indians were admitted in 1878), and Booker T. Washington's Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, launched on July 4, 1881.*

In 1910 there were 1,116,811 negro children in average daily attendance in the elementary schools of 16 Southern States, an increase of 16 per cent. in ten years. In 1911 there was an enrolment of 9,641 students in the 150 colored public high schools of 23 States reporting to the Bureau of Education an increase of nearly 60 per cent. since 1900; and in the secondary and higher schools for negroes (not including the public high schools named above) there were 40,945 elementary pupils, 23,834 secondary students, and 5,313 students in professional and collegiate classes. The great "Education Funds have been alluded to, of which six have been established since the Civil

* Booker T. Washington, Working with the Hands.

War.* The Peabody fund was started in 1867 with a gift of $5,000,000 by George Peabody, "to promote intellectual, moral and industrial education in the most destitute portions of the Southern States "; in 1912, by the terms of the gift, the remainder of the fund was allotted, and the agency ceased to exist. The John F. Slater fund for negro education was established in 1882 by a gift of $1,000,000, which has been increased by wise management to $1,500,000. The General Education Board, chartered by Congress for the purposes of Southern education, received its start from John D. Rockefeller, whose further gifts have brought its endowment up to $30,000,000. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching started in 1903 with an endowment of $10,000,000, which the donor had increased by 1912 to $22,000,000. The Russell Sage Foundation, incorporated in 1907, includes education as one of the beneficiaries of its $10,000,000 endowment. And in 1907 the will of Miss Anna T. Jeanes, of Philadelphia, set aside $1,000,000 to the very needy field of rural education for the Southern negro.

schools have been maintained, until now practically the entire Indian school population is provided for, and, except in some mission schools, under governmental control. In 1911 there were 11,000 Indian children in the public schools of the country; 24,500 in 223 day schools, 79 reservation boarding schools and 35 non-reservation schools, and 4,300 in mission schools a total of 39,800, an increase of 2,000 in one year. The whole policy of the Government is now directed toward a fusion of Indian educational methods with those of the general educational system, in view of the fact that, in a few generations, the Indian will be entirely fused into citizenship.

The number of pupils in private elementary schools, in 1910, was 1,316,900; and in the 1,979 private high schools and academies, in 1911, 130,649-61,298 boys and 69,351 girls. In college preparatory schools there were 16,301 boys and 6,245 girls; total 22,546. Religious denominations control 1,280 of the 1,979 schools. It will be readily seen how, whatever the raison d'etre that originally prompted the establishment of private schools, religious preferences and the natural desire of many churches for sectarian instruction for their children, are now prevailing motives.

Of professional schools, the 193 theological seminaries had, in 1911, 10,834 students, as against 3,254 students, in 80 seminaries, in 1870. One hears a great deal about the decreasing

number of students preparing for the ministry, but statistics do not warrant the assumption, for there has been a steady growth through all this period, though not so large an increase in proportion to the population as many other schools show. In law schools the increase, over the same years, has been from 28 to 116; in the number of students, from 1,653 to 19,615. Medical schools, all classes, increased from 90 in 1880 to 122 in 1911; students, from 6,194 in 1870 to 19,146 in 1911. In 1873 there were opened 5 schools for the training of nurses, in connection with general hospitals in as many cities; in 1911 there were 1,129 training schools, and 32,636 pupils. Dental and pharmacy schools show an increase of about 6,000 students each, over the number in their opening years; veterinary schools show an increase of 2,000.

Industrial schools began with the opening of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1824; the founding of Cooper Institute in 1859, the Pratt Institute in 1887; and hundreds of schools of like character have followed. The introduction into schools and colleges of scientific, engineering, technological and industrial departments or courses, have made the last half-century an era of industrial training. Trade schools, apprenticeship schools, coöperative schools, continuation schools,' ation schools,* Young Men's Chris

* Arthur J. Jones, The Continuation School in the United States, Bulletin Bureau of Education (1907).

tian Association classes, textile schools, and correspondence schools have followed one another in bewildering array, and stand as a witness to the enormous demand of modern industry for trained workers. The

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agricultural and mechanical colleges," the outgrowth of the Morrill Act of 1862, have had an almost revolutionary effect along the lines indicated. The number of students in this class of colleges alone was 89,188, an increase of 10.6 per cent. in one year. Indeed, the augmented interest in all phases of agricultural education is one of the most significant and hopeful movements in our recent history. In forestry, only short inconsequential courses were given in a few agricultural schools previous to the establishment of the Yale Forest School in 1900. In 1911 there were 18 colleges, 5 graduate schools, and 2 professional schools giving instruction in forestry exclusively, while there were at least 25 college courses in forestry included under the general names of botany or horticulture.

From the time when President Garfield as college president, not President of the United States declared

that there was room in the educational system for the practical "business college," the standard, as well as the number, has steadily increased. In 1911 there were 278,125 enrolled students in 2,966 different schools — 600 regular commercial schools, 614 private high schools and academies, and 1,752 public high schools and acad

emies. There should be added between 7,000 and 8,000 students taking business courses in normal schools, colleges and universities. A new evolution is taking place which carries: commercial education into advanced fields - the School of Commerce and Finance in New York City and the Wharton School in the University of Pennsylvania.

There is time only for allusion to the rapid and remarkable spread of the domestic science,* or " home making," idea; to the incorporation of military training into public schools and colleges, and the interesting New York City Nautical School, which, since 1875, has been conducted on board the St. Mary's sloop-of-war, an annual trans-Atlantic summer cruise constituting part of the course of training; to the marvelous and farreaching ramifications of art and musical education in various courses and schools there being 55,000 students in private schools alone, in 1911; nor to the humane work for the deaf and blind-Miss Winifred Holt's Lighthouse" at New York City being a peculiarly beneficent phase of care for the latter class.