to terms in a treaty. The battle at Miami Village, Sept. 30, 1790, between about 1,800 Americans under General Harmar, and a somewhat larger body of Indians under various chiefs, resulted in a victory for the Indians, with a loss of 120 men killed and 300 wigwams burned. Another pitched battle was fought near the same place the next year. The Indians were again victorious, and the American loss was more than half the army631 killed and 263 wounded. On Aug. 20, 1794, General Wayne, with 900 United States soldiers, routed the Indians in a battle near Miami Rapids, and a year later a treaty of peace was concluded, by the terms of which nearly the whole of Ohio was ceded by the Indians to the United States.

It will be observed that with five years of war we had got no farther west than Ohio. And these battles with the Indians in the Miami Valley were more bloody than any ever fought by American armies with white men.

Seminole, War our armed conflicts with Indians have been mostly in the West, on territory which we acquired by purchase from France and by cession from Mexico in concluding a two years' war with that country.

Between 1846 and 1866 there were some fifteen or twenty Indian wars or affairs, in which it is estimated that 1,500 whites and 7,000 Indians were killed.

In the actions between regular troops and Indians, from 1866 to 1891, the number of whites killed was 1,452; wounded, 1,101. The number of Indians killed was 4,363; wounded, 1,135.

Our Indian wars have been expensive as well as bloody. It is estimated by the War Department that, excluding the time covered by our wars with Great Britain (1812-14), and with Mexico (1846-48) and with the Confederate States (186165), three-fourths of the total expense of the army is chargeable, directly or indirectly, to the Indians; the aggregate thus chargeable is put at $807,073,658, and this does not include cost of fortifications, posts, and stations; nor does it include amounts reimbursed to the several States ($10,000,000) for their expenses in wars with the Indians. The Indian war pension account in 1897 stood at $28,201,632.

Except when engaged in other wars, the army has been used almost entirely for the Indian service, and stationed in the Indian country and along the frontier.

This long and bloody Indian war did not end our troubles in the Northwest. The Indians confederated under Tecumseh in 1811, and they were routed at the battle of Tippecanoe by General Har rison. This practically terminated Indian hostilities in the Northwest Territory, but Tecumseh stirred up resistance among the Creeks and their allies in our new acquisitions south of the Ohio, known as the Southwest Territory. The rebellion there began with the massacre at Fort Mims, on Aug. 30, 1813, in the Such in general outline is Americanism Creek Nation, and ended with the battle as it has consistently exhibited itself in of Tohopeka, on March 27, 1814, where the policy followed by this country at the the Indians were defeated by troops under only junctures which are comparable to General Jackson. About 1,000 Creek the Philippine situation at the present warriors were engaged at Tohopeka, and more than half of them (550) were killed. Seven fierce battles were fought during the continuance of this brief war, with an aggregate loss to the Indians of 1,300 killed and an unknown number of wounded.

The Black Hawk War, in 1832, cost the lives of twenty-five Americans and 150 Indians.

day. If it amounts to imperialism, then, indeed, are we a nation of imperialists without division.

But let us get closer to the subject. The case presented by the anti-imperialists against the administration is almost exactly paralleled in the history of Florida. Spain's title to the Philippines was as good as that by which she claimed Florida, for it had the same basis-the right of discovery; and her right to cede and convey her title was as perfect in the one case as in the other. In both instances, the Since the conclusion of the Florida, or inhabitants were, by international law,

The Florida War began in 1835 and lasted seven years, ending with the final defeat of the Indians.

territory. Americans govern by majorities-majorities of those who, by previous constitutional and statutory provisions, are authorized to govern, and whose administration of public affairs has been, as far as practicable, determined in advance by properly constituted authorities.

transferred with the land on which they As to matters of government, Americandwelt.* Filipinos inhabited the Philippine ism means American rule in American Islands when Magellan discovered them in 1521, and when Villalobos, a few years later, "took possession of the group and named it in honor of King Philip II., of Spain," and they were there in 1898, when Spain ceded the archipelago to the United States in consideration of closing a war and the payment of $20,000,000 in money. The Seminole Indians inhabited Florida when that region was discovered by the Spanish navigators, and they were there in 1819-21, when Spain ceded the country to the United States in consideration of removing a just cause of war on our part, and a stipulation to settle claims against Spain to the amount of $5,000,000.

The treaty for Florida was concluded in 1819, but was not ratified by Spain till the second year thereafter; a territorial government was established on March 30, 1822, the President in the mean time governing the Territory twenty years, the State being admitted on March 3, 1845. During the territorial period the army was needed there most of the time to suppress disorders in which the Indians were almost always mixed; and in 1835 the war with the Seminoles began. Andrew Jackson was President during the first two years of this war; it continued all through Van Buren's term, and extended a year or more into that of Harrison and Tyler. To suppress this rebellion of Osceola and his allies, the army, consisting of regulars, militia, and volunteers, was employed seven years.

President McKinley is doing in the Philippines just what was done by President Jackson and his successors in Florida, and he is doing it more humanely. Were they imperialists?

* American Supreme Court, in the case of the American Insurance Company vs. Canter, 1 Peters, 511, referring to the territory held by a conqueror, awaiting the conclusion of

a treaty, says:

Beginning with the Pilgrims' compact, we have grown a republic, removing or surmounting all obstacles in the way of our development, until now we are in the forefront of nations. We have liberated the negro and given him the ballot. The Indians, of whom there are about as many in the country as ever, have to their credit in the national treasury a trust fund amounting to about $25,000,000; they are dissolving their tribal relations; the adults, under government supervision, are learning to work at farming and other useful callings, their children are in gov ernment schools, and all are in process of citizenization. Government Indian schools now number about 150, with nearly as many contract schools. Indian education is costing the government about $2,000,000 a year.

The trouble in the Philippines has been occasioned by Aguinaldo and his associates. Americans are there of right, and they ask nothing of the natives but to be peaceable, to obey the laws, and to go ahead with their business; they will not only be protected in every right, but will be aided by all the powerful influences of an advanced and aggressive civilization. See ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY; ANNEXED TERRITORY, STATUS OF; ANTI-EXPANSIONISTS.

Imports. See COMMERCE.

Impost Duties. The first impost duties laid on the English-American colonies were in 1672, when the British Parliament, regarding colonial commerce as

"If it be ceded by the treaty, the a proper source of public revenue and acquisition is confirmed, and the ceded ter- taxation, passed a law imposing a duty ritory becomes a part of the nation to which on sugar, tobacco, ginger, cocoanut, init is annexed. On such a transfer digo, logwood, fustic, wool, and cotton, under certain conditions. It was enacted that the whole business should be managed and the imposts levied by officers appointed by the commissioners of customs in England, under the authority of

of territory, the relations of the inhabitants with their former sovereign are dissolved, and new relations are created between them and the government which has acquired their territory. The same act which transfers their country transfers the allegiance of those who remain in it."

the lords of the treasury. This was the the action of Parliament. In November, first attempt at taxation of the colonies without their consent.

alarmed, he withdrew to the castle. Knowles offered a company of marines to sustain his authority, and threatened to bombard the town if his officers were not released. The populace declared that the governor's flight was abdication. Matters became so serious that the influential citizens, who had favored the populace, tried to suppress the tumult. The Assembly ordered the release of the officers, and Knowles sent back most of the impressed men. The authorities attributed the outbreak to "negroes and persons of vile condition." This was the first of a series of impressments of American citizens by British officers which finally led to the War of 1812-15.

1747, Commodore Knowles, while in Boston Harbor, finding himself short of men, The first of such duties established by sent a press-gang into the town one mornthe United States was for the purpose ing, which seized and carried to the vesof restoring the public credit. On April sels several of the citizens. This violence 18, 1782, the Congress voted "that it be aroused the populace. Several of the naval recommended to the several States as officers on shore were seized by a mob and indispensably necessary to the restoration held as hostages for their kidnapped counof public credit, and to the punctual trymen. They also surrounded the town and honorable discharge of the public house, where the legislature was in sesdebts, to invest the United States, in sion, and demanded the release of the Congress assembled, with power to levy impressed men. The governor called out for the use of the United States" certain the militia, who reluctantly obeyed. Then, duties named upon certain goods imported from any foreign port. Under the provisions of the Articles of Confederation, the unanimous consent of the States was necessary to confer this power upon the Congress. This was the first attempt to lay such duties for revenue. The necessity was obvious, and all the States except Rhode Island and Georgia agreed to an ad valorem duty of 5 per cent. upon all goods excepting spirituous liquors, wines, teas, pepper, sugars, molasses, cocoa, and coffee, on which specific duties were laid. The Assembly gave, as a reason for its refusal, the inequality of such a tax, bearing harder on the commercial States, and the inexpediency and danger of intrusting its collection to federal officers, unknown and not accountable to the State governments. A committee of the Congress, with Alexander Hamilton as chairman, was appointed to lay the proposition before the several States and to urge their acquiescence. They sent it forth with an eloquent address, which appealed to the patriotism of the people. The measure was approved by the leading men of the country, and all the States but two were willing to give Congress the desired power. "It is money, not power, that ought to be the object," they said. "The former will pay our debts, the latter may destroy our liberties." See CoмMERCE; INTERNAL REVENUE.

Proofs of the sufferings of American seamen from the operations of the British impress system were continually received, and so frequent and flagrant were these outrages, towards the close of 1805, that Congress took action on the subject. It was felt that a crisis was reached when the independence of the United States must be vindicated, or the national honor would be imperilled. There was ample cause not only for retaliatory measures against Great Britain, but even for war. A non-importation act was passed. It was resolved to try negotiations once more. William Pinkney, of Maryland, was appointed (May, 1806) minister extraordinary to England, to become associated Impressment. In 1707 the British Par- with Monroe, the resident minister, in liament, by act, forbade the impressment negotiating a treaty that should settle all of seamen in American ports and waters disputes between the two governments. for privateering service, unless of such He sailed for England, and negotiations sailors as had previously deserted from were commenced Aug. 7. As the Ameriships-of-war. The custom had been a can commissioners were instructed to source of annoyance and complaint for make no treaty which did not secure the several years, and was continued despite vessels of their countrymen on the high

seas against press-gangs, that topic re- of slavery as seamen in British ships-ofceived the earliest attention. The Ameri- war. When Jonathan Russell, minister cans contended that the right of impress- at the British Court, attempted to nement, existing by municipal law, could gotiate with that government (August, not be exercised out of the jurisdic- 1812) for a settlement of disputes betion of Great Britain, and, consequently, tween the Americans and British, and proupon the high seas. The British replied posed the withdrawal of the claims of that no subject of the King could expatri- the latter to the right of impressment ate himself" once an Englishman, al- and the release of impressed seamen, Lord ways an Englishman"-and argued that Castlereagh, the British minister for forto give up that right would make every eign affairs, refused to listen to such a American vessel an asylum for British proposition. He even expressed surprise seamen wishing to evade their country's that, “as a condition preliminary even service. Finally, the British commission- to a suspension of hostilities, the governers stated in writing that it was not in- ment of the United States should have tended by their government to exercise thought fit to demand that the British govthis claimed right on board any American ernment should desist from its ancient vessel, unless it was known it contained and accustomed practice of impressing British deserters. In that shape this por- British seamen from the merchant-ships tion of a treaty then concluded remained, of a foreign state, simply on the assurand was unsatisfactory because it was ance that a law was hereafter to be passed based upon contingencies and provisions, to prohibit the employment of British and not upon positive treaty stipulations. The American commissioners then, on their own responsibility, proceeded to treat upon other points in dispute, and an agree- a prohibition in case the British government was made, based principally upon Jay's treaty of 1794. The British made some concessions as to the rights of neutrals. The treaty was more favorable to the Americans, on the whole, than Jay's, and, for the reasons which induced him, the American commissioners signed it. It was satisfactory to the merchants and most of the people; yet the President, consulting only his Secretary of State, and without referring it to the Senate, rejected it.

seamen in the public or commercial service of that state." The United States had proposed to pass a law making such

ment should relinquish the practice of impressment and release all impressed seamen. Castlereagh acknowledged that there might have been, at the beginning of the year 1811, 1,600 bona fide American citizens serving by compulsion in the British navy. Several hundreds of them had been discharged, and all would be, Castlereagh said, upon proof made of their American birth; but the British government, he continued, could not consent "to suspend the exercise of a right upon A Cause of War.-The British govern- which the naval strength of the empire ment claimed the right for commanders of mainly depended, unless assured that the British ships of war to make up any object might be attained in some other deficiency in their crews by pressing into way." There were then upward of 6,000 their service British-born seamen found cases of alleged impressment of American anywhere not within the immediate juris- seamen recorded in the Department of diction of some foreign state. As many State, and it was estimated that at least British seamen were employed on board as many more might have occurred, of of American merchant-vessels, the exer- which no information had been received. cise of this claimed right might (and Castlereagh had admitted on the floor of often did) seriously cripple American ves- the House of Commons that an official sels at sea. To distinguish between Brit- inquiry had revealed the fact that there ish and American seamen was not an easy were, in 1811, 3,500 men claiming to be matter, and many British captains, eager American citizens. Whatever may have to fill up their crews, frequently impressed been the various causes combined which native-born Americans. These were some- produced the war between the United times dragged by violence from on board States and Great Britain in 1812-15, their own vessels and condemned to a life when it was declared, the capital question,