where he addressed himself exclusively to those who understood his language, and witness the electrical effect of his eloquence upon his audience.

Keokuk seems to have possessed a more sober judgment and to have had a more intelligent view of the great strength and resources of the United States than his noted and restless contemporary, Black Hawk. He knew from the first that the reckless war which Black Hawk and his band had determined to carry on could result in nothing but defeat and disaster, and used every argument against it. The large number of warriors whom he had dissuaded from following Black Hawk became, however, greatly excited with the war spirit after Stillman's defeat, and but for the signal tact displayed by Keokuk on that occasion, would have forced him to submit to their wishes in joining the rest of the warriors in the field. A war dance was held and Keokuk took part in it, seeming to be moved with the current of the rising storm. When the dance was over, he called the council to prepare for war. He made a speech, in which he admitted the justice of their complaints against the Americans. To seek redress was a noble aspiration of their nature. The blood of their brethren had been shed by the white man, and the spirits of their braves, slain in battle, called loudly for vengeance. "I am your chief," he said, “and it is my duty to lead you to battle, if, after fully considering the matter, you are determined to go. But before you decide on taking this important step, it is wise to inquire into the chances of success." He then portrayed to them the great power of the United States, against whom they would have to contend, that their chance of success was utterly hopeless. "But," said he, "if you do determine to go upon the warpath, I will agree to lead you on one condition, viz: that before we go, we will kill all our old men and our wives and children, to save them from a lingering death of starvation, and that every one of us determine to leave our homes on the other side of the Mississippi."

This was a strong but truthful picture of the prospect before them, and was presented in such a forcible light as to cool their ardor and cause them to abandon the rash undertaking.

But during the war of 1832, it is now considered certain that small bands of Indians from the west side of the Mississippi made incursions into the white settlements in the lead mining region and committed some murders and depredations.

When peace was declared between the United States and England, Black Hawk was required to make peace with the former and entered into a treaty at Portage des Sioux, September 14, 1815, but did not "touch the goose quill to it until May 13, 1816, when he smoked the pipe of peace with the great white chief" at St. Louis. This treaty was a renewal of the treaty of 1804, but Black Hawk declared he had been deceived; that he did not know that by signing the treaty he was giving away his village. This weighed upon his mind, already soured by previous disappointment and the irresistable encroachments of the whites; and when, a few years later, he and his people were driven from their possessions by the military, he determined to return to the home of his fathers.

It is also to be remarked that in 1816 by treaty with various tribes, the United States relinquished to the Indians all the lands lying north of a line drawn from the southernmost point of Lake Michigan west to the Mississippi, except a reser

vation five leagues square on the Mississippi river, supposed then to be sufficient to include all the mineral lands on and adjacent to Fever river, and one league square at the mouth of the Wisconsin river.

THE BLACK HAWK WAR

The immediate cause of the Indian outbreak in 1830 was the occupation of Black Hawk's village on the Rock river, by the whites, during the absence of the chief and his braves on a hunting expedition, on the west side of the Mississippi. When they returned they found their wigwams occupied by white families and their own women and children were shelterless on the banks of the river. The Indians were indignant and determined to repossess their village at all hazards, and early in the spring of 1831 recrossed the Mississippi and menacingly took possession of their own cornfields and cabins. It may be well to remark here that it was expressly stipulated in the treaty of 1804, to which they attributed all their troubles, that the Indians should not be obliged to leave their lands until they were sold by the United States, and it does not appear that they occupied any lands other than those owned by the government. If this was true the Indians had good cause for indignation and complaint. But the whites, driven out in turn by the returning Indians, became so clamorous against what they termed the encroachments of the natives, that Governor Reynolds, of Illinois, ordered General Gaines to Rock Island with a military force to drive the Indians again from their homes to the west side of the Mississippi. Black Hawk says he did not intend to be provoked into war by anything less than the blood of some of his own people; in other words, that there would be no war unless it should be commenced by the pale faces. But it was said and probably thought by the military commanders along the frontier that the Indians intended to unite in a general war against the whites, from Rock river to the Mexican borders. But it does not appear that the hardy frontiersmen themselves had any fears, for their experience had been that, when well treated, their Indian neighbors were not dangerous Black Hawk and his band had done no more than to attempt to repossess the old homes of which they had been deprived in their absence. No blood had been shed. Black Hawk and his chiefs sent a flag of truce and a new treaty was made, by which Black Hawk and his band agreed to remain forever on the Iowa side and never recross the river without the permission of the president or the governor of Illinois. Whether the Indians clearly understood the terms of this treaty is uncertain. As was usual, the Indian traders had dictated terms on their behalf, and they had received a large amount of provisions, etc., from the government, but it may well be doubted whether the Indians comprehended that they could never revisit the graves of their fathers without violating their treaty. They undoubtedly thought that they had agreed never to recross the Mississippi with hostile intent. However this may be, on the 6th day of April, 1832, Black Hawk and his entire band with their women and children, again recrossed the Mississippi in plain view of the garrison of Fort Armstrong and went up Rock river. Although this act was construed into an act of hostility by the military authorities who declared that Black Hawk intended to recover his village or the site where it stood, by force, yet it does not appear that he made any such attempt, nor did his appearance create any special alarm among the settlers. They knew that the

Indians never went on the warpath encumbered with the old men, their women and their children.

The Galenian, printed in Galena, of May 2, 1832, says that Black Hawk was invited by the prophet and had taken possession of a tract about forty miles up Rock river, but that he did not remain there long, but commenced his march up Rock river. Captain W. B. Green, who served in Captain Stephenson's company of mounted rangers, says that "Black Hawk and his band crossed the river with no hostile intent, but that his band had had bad luck in hunting during the previous winter, were actually in a starving condition, and had come over to spend the summer with a friendly tribe on the head waters of the Rock and Illinois rivers, by invitation from their chief. Other old settlers, who all agree that Black Hawk had no idea of fighting, say that he came back to the west side expecting to negotiate another treaty and get a new supply of provisions. The most reasonable explanation of this movement, which resulted so disastrously to Black Hawk and his starving people, is that during the fall and winter of 1831-2, his people became deeply indebted to their favorite trader at Fort Armstrong (Rock Island). They had not been fortunate in hunting and he was likely to lose heavily, as an Indian debt was outlawed in one year. If, therefore, the Indians could be induced to come over and the fears of the military could be sufficiently aroused to pursue them, another treaty could be negotiated, and from the payments from the government the shrewd trader could get his pay. Just a week after Black Hawk crossed the river, on the 13th of April, 1832, George Davenport wrote to General Atkinson: "I am informed that the British band of Sac Indians are determined to make war on the frontier settlements..

.. From every information that I have received, I am of the opinion that the intention of the British band of Sac Indians is to commit depredations on the inhabitants of the frontier." And yet, from the 6th day of April until after Stillman's men commenced war by firing on a flag of truce from Black Hawk, no murders nor depredations were committed by the British band of Sac Indians.

It is not the purpose of this sketch to detail the incidents of the Black Hawk war of 1832, as it pertains rather to the history of the state of Illinois. It is sufficient to say that, after the disgraceful affair at Stillman's Run, Black Hawk, concluding that the whites, refusing to treat with him, were determined to exterminate his people, determined to return to the Iowa side of the Mississippi. He could not return by the way he came, for the army was behind him, an army, too, that would sternly refuse to recognize the white flag of peace. His only course was to make his way northward and reach the Mississippi, if possible, before the troops could overtake him, and this he did; but before he could get his women and children across the Wisconsin he was overtaken and a battle ensued. Here again he sued for peace, and, through his trusty lieutenant, "the Prophet," the whites were plainly informed that the starving Indians did not wish to fight, but would return to the west side of the Mississippi peaceably, if they could be permitted to do so. No attention was paid to this second effort to negotiate peace, and as soon as supplies could be obtained the pursuit was resumed, the flying Indians were overtaken again eight miles before they reached the mouth of the Bad Axe, and the slaughter (it should not be dignified by the name of battle) commenced. Here, overcome by starvation and the victorious whites, his band was scattered on the 2d day of August, 1832. Black Hawk escaped but was

brought into camp at Prairie du Chien by three Winnebagoes. He was confined in Jefferson Barracks until the spring of 1833, when he was sent to Washington, arriving there April 22d. On the 26th of April they were taken to Fortress Monroe, where they remained till the 4th of June, 1833, when orders were given for them to be liberated and returned to their own country. By order of the president he was brought back to Iowa through the principal eastern cities. Crowds flocked to see him along his route and he was very much flattered by the attentions he received. He lived among his people on the Iowa river till that reservation was sold in 1836, when, with the rest of the Sacs and Foxes, he removed to the Des Moines reservation, where he remained till his death, which occurred on the 3d of October, 1838.

INDIAN PURCHASES, RESERVES AND TREATIES

At the close of the Black Hawk war, in 1832, a treaty was made at a council held on the west bank of the Mississippi, where now stands the thriving city of Davenport, on grounds now occupied by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railroad Company, on the 21st day of September, 1832. At this council the United States was represented by General Winfield Scott and Governor Reynolds, of Illinois. Keokuk, Pash-a-pa-ho and some thirty other chiefs and warriors of the Sac and Fox nation were present. By this treaty of Sacs and Foxes ceded to the United State a strip of land on the eastern border of Iowa fifty miles wide, from the northern boundary of Missouri to the mouth of the Upper Iowa river, containing about six million acres. The western line of the purchase was parallel with the Mississippi. In consideration of this cession, the United States government stipulated to pay annually to the confederated tribes, for thirty consecutive years, twenty thousand dollars in specie, and to pay the debts of the Indians at Rock Island, which had been accumulating for seventeen years and amounted to fifty thousand dollars, due to Davenport & Farnham, Indian traders. The government also generously donated to the Sac and Fox women. and children whose husbands and fathers had fallen in the Black Hawk war, thirty-five beef cattle, twelve bushels of salt, thirty barrels of pork, fifty barrels of flour and six thousand bushels of corn.

This territory is known as the "Black Hawk Purchase." Although it was not the first portion of Iowa ceded to the United States by the Sacs and Foxes, it was the first opened to actual settlement by the tide of emigration that flowed across the Mississippi as soon as the Indian title was extinguished. The treaty was ratified February 13, 1833, and took effect on the 1st of June following, when the Indians quietly removed from the ceded territory and this fertile and beautiful region was opened to white settlers.

By the terms of the treaty, out of the Black Hawk Purchase was reserved for the Sacs and Foxes four hundred square miles of land situated on the Iowa river, and including within its limits Keokuk's village, on the right bank of that river. This tract was known as "Keokuk's Reserve," and was occupied by the Indians until 1836, when, by a treaty made in September between them and Governor Dodge, of Wisconsin Territory, it was ceded to the United States. The council was held on the banks of the Mississippi above Davenport and was the largest assemblage of the kind ever held by the Sacs and Foxes to treat for

the sale of land. About one thousand of their chiefs and braves were present and Keokuk was their leading spirit and principal speaker on the occasion. By the terms of the treaty, the Sacs and Foxes were removed to another reservation on the Des Moines river, where an agency was established for them at what is now the town of Agency City.

Besides the Keokuk Reserve, the government gave out of the Black Hawk Purchase to Antoine Le Claire, interpreter, in fee simple, one section of land opposite Rock Island, and another at the head of the first rapids above the island, on the Iowa side. This was the first land title granted by the United States to an individual in Iowa.

Soon after the removal of the Sacs and Foxes to their new reservation on the Des Moines river, General Joseph M. Street was transferred from the agency of the Winnebagoes, at Prairie du Chien, to establish an agency among them. A farm was selected, on which the necessary buildings were erected, including a comfortable farm house for the agent and his family at the expense of the Indian fund. A salaried agent was employed to superintend the farm and dispose of the crops. Two mills were erected, one on Soap creek, and the other on Sugar creek. The latter was soon swept away by a flood but the former remained and did good service for many years. Connected with the agency were Joseph Smart and John Goodell, interpreters. The latter was interpreter for Hard Fish's band. Three of the Indian chiefs, Keokuk, Wapello and Appanoose, had each a large field improved, the two former on the right bank of the Des Moines, back from the river, in what is now "Keokuk's Prairie," and the latter on the present site of the city of Ottumwa. Among the traders connected with the agency were the Messrs. Ewing, from Ohio, and Phelps & Company, from Illinois, and also J. P. Eddy, who established his post at what is now the site of Eddyville.

The Indians at this agency became idle and listless in the absence of their natural and wonted excitements, and many of them plunged into dissipation. Keokuk himself became dissipated in the latter years of his life, and it has been reported that he died of delirium tremens after his removal with his tribe to Kansas.

In May, 1843, most of the Indians were removed up the Des Moines river, above the temporary line of Red Rock, having ceded the remnant of their lands in Iowa to the United States on the 21st of September, 1837, and on the 11th of October, 1842. By the terms of the latter treaty, they held possession of the "New Purchase," till the autumn of 1845, when the most of them were removed to their reservation in Kansas, the balance being removed in the spring of 1846. 1. Treaty with the Sioux.-Made July 19, 1815; ratified December 16, 1815. This treaty was made at Portage des Sioux, between the Sioux of Minnesota and Upper Iowa and the United States, by William Clark and Ninian Edwards, commissioners, and was merely a treaty of peace and friendship on the part of those Indians toward the United States at the close of the War of 1812.

2. Treaty with the Sacs.-A similar treaty of peace was made at Portage des Sioux, between the United States and the Sacs, by William Clark, Ninian Edwards and Auguste Choteau, on the 13th of September, 1815, and ratified at the same date as the above. In this, the treaty of 1804 was reaffirmed and the Sacs here represented promised for themselves and their bands to keep entirely