to you the word of God." One of the most once the highest compliment; the application singular specimens of change in the applica- of such an epithet we should now resent as an tion of words is to be seen in this passage; insult, because the word savors of rascality; "Also I preie and the german felowe." My its better meaning is rapidly disappearing, readers may well wonder what German felowe and probably can never be restored. In Wicis to be found in the New Testament; they lif's time it was a word capable of the highwill discover him in Phil. 4: 3, " And I en est service, and incapable of any base occupatreat thee also, true yoke-fellow." If an tion. With Wiclif, the key of knowledge is Englishman, utterly unacquainted with the "the key of kunnynge." Paul has great satAuthorized Version, were to take up Wiclif, isfaction in feeling that the Christians in Rome he would be astonished to find what a num- are filled with all "kunnynge; " he thanks ber of castles Jesus and his disciples visited. God that the Corinthians are rich in all Their whole progress seems to have been a" kunnynge; " and in one of the apostle's series of journeys from one castle to another. most magnificent passages, he says, "Oh, the "Jesus made iournee bi citees and castels depth of the riches both of the wisdom and prechynge." "Jesus came not yit in to the' kunnynge' of God." Wit, originally sycastel." Castle is Wiclif's usual word for nonymous with cunning, has, like its synovillage. But his use of the word town is still nyme, gone the downward road, though not more curious. It is rather startling to find in the same direction, nor in so discreditable one of the men who excused themselves from a direction. It has not a bad sense like cunthe supper saying, "I have bought a toun, ning, but it has acquired a somewhat paltry and I have nede to go and see it." But town sense. Wit now shows itself for the most is Wiclif's word for a field. Indeed, I may part in joking; it used to show itself in every say that toun is Wiclif's word for country. form of intellectual effort; it is now that In our version we read that Simon the Cyren- which makes men laugh, it was that which ean was coming out of the country when he made men think; in fact, it was wisdom, it was compelled to carry Christ's cross. Wi- was understanding. And so, Wiclif transclif tells us that he was coming "fro the lates Paul as exhorting the Corinthians not toun." It seems to be a hopeless contradic- to be children in "wittis," to be in malice tion, but it is not; both are right, because children, but in "wittis " men. Gal. 3 comtown is a word which properly signifies any mences thus: "O unwitti Galathianes; enclosed space; in fact, its radical meaning and in Rom. 11: 33, we have this question, seems to be a hedge; it is therefore, applica- For whi, who knewe the witte of the Lord?" ble to a field, to a farm, in fact, to the coun- As it is with families, so it is with words; try. Sad is a word which Wiclif uses in a some go down and some go up. Cunning and manner which, to the modern Englishman, wit have each fallen from the noblest position; must appear very strange. With us it has an the one has become a knave, and the other a exclusively mournful signification, and sug-trifler. There is, however, one word at least gests nothing but sorrow and affliction. Hav- which, since Wiclif's time, has evidently iming only this idea of the word, we may well be perplexed on finding it asserted that the wise builder's house fell not, because it was founded on "a sad stoon; " that Paul rejoices to behold in the Colossians the "sadnesse "of their faith in Christ; that Peter warns Christians not to fall away from their "sadnesse;" that hope is a "sad" anchor of the soul. But such is Wiclif's word for firm, steadfast, and it is in fact, the past participle of the verb to set. Cunning was once a very noble word; used as a noun it meant knowledge, science, skill; used as an adjective it had a corresponding signification. It has been degraded, the crown has fallen from its head. To be called cunning was 66 proved itself, and is now used in better service than that which it frequently discharged five hundred years ago. I refer to the word virtue. This word Wiclif generally uses in its ancient sense of strength; it is his standard word for power, whether physical or spiritual, but he uses it altogether irrespectively of any moral value. The miracles of Christ are with Wiclif virtues, of which application a remnant exists in the Authorized Version, where we read, concerning the Saviour, that there went virtue out of him, and healed them all." But in Wiclif the word is of perpetual occurrence. Paul is persuaded that neither angels, nor principalities, nor virtues,“ shall be able to separate us from the love of ing from disease; it tells us that salvation must be wrought in us as well as for us, that it is a subjective as well as an objective process. It were well if this fine word could be restored to its former position, if the spiritual could be again associated with it; so that every man might be reminded that, however not in a healthy state unless he is a believer in the Son of God. A thoroughly religious man is the only healthy man. Such is the train of thought suggested by Wiclif's use of this word. 93 66 God; and in 2 Thess. 2: 9, he speaks of that us not only of danger, but of danger proceedwicked one," whose coming is after the working of Satan, in all 'vertu,' and signs, and lying wonders." Virtue, we thus perceive, was ascribed to Satan and other wicked beings; virtues were among those elements which might tend to separate Christians from the love of God; the word has been rescued from this degradation, and now has an exclu-strong he may be in body and in mind, he is sively good signification. Much the same honorable history pertains to the word famous. It has not attained the same moral standing as virtue, but still it is so far on the side of goodness that we are obliged to use its exact contrary-" infamous "-when we Some of Wiclif's words have altogether speak of something particularly bad. But gone out of common use. The loss of some the word famous had not, in Wiclif's time, of them will not perhaps be very much reestablished for itself a good character, for I gretted; for example, "bilipre," for which find that Pilate had a "famous" prisoner we have" measure; ""volatalis," for which called Barabbas. There is another word we have." fatlings; chepynge," which is which, I think, has very properly been de- Wiclif's word for market, and which, pergraded, or rather, it has been restored to its haps, still exists in its old signification in proper position from a higher, which all, ex- Cheapside. We can also dispense with . cepting very ill-natured people, will agree it "erthetiliers," although it is much more to never ought to have occupied. I refer to the the purpose than husbandmen; for why a word leech. Wiclif, in common with many husbandman should be a farmer any more later writers, applies this term to physicians. than a blacksmith it would be very difficult The woman with an issue of blood had "re-to show; judge serves as well as "domesceyved many thingis of ful many lechis ; " man," and officer as well as Wiclif's "maisand instead of "Luke the beloved physician," terful axer," who casts the insolvent debtor we have "luk the leche moost dere." Wic- into prison; murderers, too, are neither betlif's version brings before us another word ter nor worse than "manquellers," and we which, unhappily, has suffered in the lapse understand talents better than "besauntis," of time. Health is a word which has now an and unleavened bread better than "therf almost exclusively physical meaning, or at loaves." But there are some words the loss most a physical and intellectual one. We of which we have, I think, reason to regret; speak of bodily and mental health, and, in a such, for example, are "soth" and "sothfigurative sense, we speak of a healthy trade; fast." Truth and truthful are as good, but but we do not apply either health or healthy still for words which, happily, are in such in a purely spiritual sense. This, however, great request, the more synonyms the better. is Wiclif's constant practice. Health is, in "Soth" and its kindred terms appear often fact, his standard word for salvation; the in Wiclif. "Sothli, sothli," for verily, verknowledge of salvation is "the science of ily; Nicodemus says to Christ, "Maister, we helthe; "the gospel of salvation is "the gos-witen that thou art sothfast; " the Ephesians pel of helthe;" the way of salvation is "the are exhorted "to stand, having their loins way of helthe." A thoroughly Saxon word girt about with 'sothefastness; "" and Paul instead of the Latin, and a word, perhaps, asks the Galatians whether he was become better than salvation in some respects, because their enemy because he tells them the it seems to carry with it the idea of sanctifi-"sothe." This word, however, has almost cation as well as that of justification, which, disappeared, and what traces are left of it to most persons, salvation does not; for sal- are discreditable; as, for instance, in forvation, as generally understood, means deliv-sooth, which is a word of contempt, and in erance from some external evil, e.g., hell tor- soothsaying, which is anything but truthments. But this word health teaches us to saying. If the loss of the word "sooth" is consider the subjective in religion; it reminds to be regretted, much more may we regret = 66 the loss of the word "ruth." This is one Latin. Some of these Anglo-Saxon words of Wiclif's favorites; it means compassion, have died out, or nearly so; for instance, and is a fine Saxon equivalent for this Latin" stie" which Wiclif constantly uses for asword which has superseded it, but is by no cend: "Ye shall see heaven opened, and the means its superior: Jesus had "ruth" upon angels of God 'stiynge' up and coming the multitude. And now what is left of this down upon the Son of Man; or, as Wiclif word? We certainly have it, we have it en- generally, if not always renders it," mannes tire, but we have it with an addition that de- sone." This word, I suppose, is still found stroys it―ruthless. What shall we say? Is in "stairs," things by which we "stie" or it true that we have lost the "ruth," and go up. 99 "Outakun may also be regarded are indeed ruthless? Our language, at all as obsolete, although the reader will perceive events, is all but ruthless, seeing that that it is exactly equivalent to except. Wic"ruth" is scarcely recognized amongst its lif's most usual word for except, however, is words, certainly not amongst its leading but be-out; that is to say, minus; e.g., words. But it will be said we have rueful," But a man be borun agen he mai not se the which is equivalent to ruthful. Yes, we kingdom of God." Sourdough" is a word have rueful; but rueful is not, as used by which can scarcely be looked upon as extant, us, the opposite to ruthless; that is to say, although each of its component parts is in rueful does not mean compassionate, unless it general use; at all events, sourdough is a be compassion for one's self. Rue and rue- term no longer employed in the sense in ful are used exclusively in a subjective sense. which it occurs in Wiclif, viz., as equivalent I do not rue another man's mistakes or mis- to leaven. "The kingdom of heaven is like fortunes, but my own; my countenance is to sourdough." "Beware of the sourdough rueful when I contemplate my own misery, of Pharisees and Saducees." Again, we not when I contemplate my neighbor's sor- scarcely ever use the word "fieldy; " Wicrows. Thus, what little of "ruthfulness" is lif speaks of a plain as "a fieldi place." left us we keep to ourselves; it has become Compare Matt. 23: 12, in the Authorized so scarce that we have none to spare for oth- Version, with Wiclif, and you will find a ers; and the word is chiefly known by its good specimen of old Anglo-Saxon, and its appearing simply in order to deny itself in capability of expressing ideas which are now "ruthless." According to Wiclif, John the commonly expressed in terms derived from Baptist tells the soldiers (whom Wiclif al- the Latin: "For he that higheth hym self ways calls "knyghtis") to be content with shall be mekid, and he that mekith hym self their "soudis." These "soudis" meaning schal be enhaunsid." This last verb, it wages, are so intimately connected with sol- should be remarked, is not Saxon. Another diers, that they seem to favor that melan- and very similar instance will be found in choly and discreditable etymology which John 3: 30, "It bihoveth hym to wexe, but connects soldier and sell, and which, in fact, me to be made lasse." Another old English proclaims a soldier to be a man who has sold word is "arede," used by Wiclif instead of himself for pay. On this derivation, how-prophesy, which we have in our present verever, I venture to offer no further opinion. The Authorized Version is justly admired and prized as a noble specimen of the AngloSaxon tongue; but as the reader will naturally expect, Wiclif is still more AngloSaxon than those who lived more than two hundred years after him; and perhaps it is not until we read Wiclif that we are forcibly reminded of the great extent to which the Latin element pervades the Authorized Version. Without being very careful in my search, I have found more than fifty distinct words and phrases which Wiclif renders in his own native tongue, but for which the translators of 1611 have had recourse to the sion, "Thou crist, arede to us who is he that smote thee" (Matt. 26: 68). The following are specimens of Saxon terms in Wiclif which are represented by Latin in the Authorized Version. It should, however, be observed that Wiclif does not constantly use these words; thus, for example, he has redemption as well as " agenbiynge," and " regeneracioun as well as "agenbigetinge." Still, "agenbiynge" is his usual word for redemption. "Thou were slayn, and agenboughtest us to God in thy blood," Rev. 5: 9. So, again, his usual word for resurrection is "agenrisynge; " "I am demed of the hope and of agenrisynge of deed men," 66 Acts 23: 6. Then we have in Wiclif "en-derstand them. Other cases might be given; did," for perfected; goynge out," for de- for example, the word "prevent" has become cease; "hunger" for famine; "gode do- so altered in its meaning that we may truly ers," for benefactors; "token" for sign; say that it suggests an idea exactly the re"showid," for revealed; "teeld out," for verse of that which it once conveyed, and when declared; 66 dwellyngis," for mansions; we read, "We which are alive, and remain "putte," for ordained; "make redi," for unto the coming of the Lord, shall not preprepare; "liknes," for similitude, and for vent them which are asleep," we find it necparable; "gilte," for offence; "lived agen," essary to enter upon an explanation, if we for revived; "feynynge," for dissimulation, have to address ignorant persons; but Wicand for hypocrisy; "schepardis," for pas- lif, using instead of prevent "come bifor," tors; "gilour," for deceiver; "beheestis," gives the apostle's meaning clearly and at for promises, and "bihote," for promised; once. In the Authorized Version of John 10: "halowynge of the temple," for dedication; 1, the words thief and robber do tolerably well "holi men," for saints; "goostli," for spir- convey the distinction implied in the original itual; "sle" (slay), for mortify; "undeed- terms, the thief being the man who secretly liness," for immortality; "sight," for vision; appropriates that which is another's; while "nigh goynge," for access; " turnynge up the robber does so openly and with violence; so doun the folk," for perverting the nation; but this distinction, if not more accurately "moot halle," for judgment hall. Instead marked, is much more strongly given, by of "suppose," Wiclif generally has "gesse," Wiclif, who calls these characters respecusing it exactly as the people of the United tively, "a night theef and a day theef." States use it now, e.g., "Tell me, therefore, Dean Trench considers it probable that in the which of them will love him most? Simon expression "which strain at a gnat" an eranswered and said, I' gesse' that he to whom ror has crept into our version, through the he forgave most." We also find the word carelessness of some printer, and that the "dresse" used by Wiclif where the Author- translators intended us to read "which strain ized Version has direct, e.g., "But God him- out a gnat." However this may be," strainself, and our Father, and our Lord Jesus ing at a gnat" is a phrase almost destitute Christ, dresse' our way unto you." This of meaning. Wiclif reads, "blinde leders meaning of the word "dress" still lingers clensynge a gnat, but swolowynge a camel; " in "address;" that which directs a visitor this, though not very clear, seems a nearer or a letter to a man's house. But, perhaps, the most remarkable of all Wiclif's Saxonisms is that by which he avoids the Latin word "create." To create is not to make up or fashion anything out of existing materials, but to bring it into existence out of nothing "Create" and "creator" are, certainly, very convenient words, as will be seen when we notice Wiclif's rather clumsy substitutes, e.g., "For thy pleasure they are and were created;" "for thy wille the werun and ben made of nought" (Rev. 4: 11). "A faithful creator; ""the faithful maker of nought" (1 Peter 4: 19). approach to the idea of carefully removing a gnat from the cup than the authorized version affords. When we read that the Baptist's head was put into a charger, we have by no means so plain a statement as Wiclif gives us by using the word "dische." "Do violence to no man," seems to be rather a strange injunction to soldiers, who are in the same sentence told to be content with their wages, and who, therefore, are permitted to continue in the service. Wiclif's version, if not so literal, seems to be more in accordance to the spirit of the passage-"smyte ye wrongfulli no man." "Thou fool! this night thy soul In some of the above instances it will, I shall be required of thee;" here our version think, be seen that, for the unlearne Eng- is certainly not literal, nor does it well exlishman, Wiclif is, even now, a better trans-press our Lord's meaning. Wiclif renders lator than the learned divines of 1611. Min- the passage thus, "Fool, in this night thei isters find that they must explain such words shalle take thi liif fro thee." To whomsoas similitude, parable, and redemption; but ever the plural pronoun refers, the original "liknes" and "agenbiynge" explain them- is plural, and the propriety of altering the selves; put them into modern orthography, expression into an impersonal form is, at and every man who can read them will un-least, questionable. "How hardly shall they king by reading the clause thus: "Be ye that have riches enter into the kingdom of God." I do not know that I have ever met with a man who thought himself rich; as long as any person knows of another who is wealthier than himself, he thinks himself very poor; and so these solemn words are words which often fail to reach a rich man's conscience; while a comparatively poor man, however greedy of gain, thinks that because he has not £10,000 a year the text cannot have any reference to him. Now, I think that Wiclif's version is more literal, and at the same time more calculated to impress us all with the danger arising from the love of gain, -"How hard thei that han money schuln entre into the kyngdom of God." Most justly do we find fault with the epithet which the Authorized Version introduces in the passage, "who shall change our vile body" (Phil. 3: 21). Alford, Ellicott, and others, reject this adjective in a most decided manner, and read, "the body of our humiliation." But doctrine of redemption is contained in this Wiclif anticipated our modern scholars, word. Such, however, is the fact, and Wic"whiche schal refourme the bodi of our meke- lif shows it, not perhaps in the very clearest nesse." When in our version we read, manner, but still in such a manner that noth"Whether it be to the king, as supreme" ing but great stupidity can permit any reader (1 Peter 2: 13), we apply to a creature an to miss it. Wiclif reads, "a people of purepithet which seems more fitting for the Cre-chasynge; "i.e., a people whom Christ has ator, whom, accordingly, we call "The Supreme Being." I do not know whether it was the desire to gratify James I.'s lofty notions of the royal prerogative that induced the translators of 1611 to adopt this word; I believe it is not to be found in any of the earlier English versions of the passage. Wiclif does full justice both to the text and to the To bought with his blood; this it is that makes Christians "a peculiar people." I have thus endeavored to present some of the most remarkable features of the version made by our great Reformer; and I hope that, whether considered in a literary or a theological light, this article may prove not altogether destitute of interest and instruction. HUGH STOWELL BROWN. DARING OF ALPINE GUIDES.-It is almost incredible with what safety and ease the mountaineer passes the most dangerous places, carrying heavy burdens. When Hugi, on his Finsteraarhorn expedition, could scarcely get on, owing to an injury to his foot, Leuthold took him up nolens volens on his back, and hastened with him down the glacier, whilst storm and night were approaching. The other two experienced guides, Wahren and Zemt, emulated him in carrying their master. Hugi says, it was incredible to him how these men, without a stick, holding their burden with both hands, sprang over crevasses in the twilight where all was deceitful and uncertain. We have already given examples of the audacity with which the guides venture upon breakneck leaps; here is one more that will illustrate their courage in another way. Got. Studer, on his return from the Jungfrau, had let his hat fall into a deep crevasse, which sank without a break, with surfaces of ice as steep as the steepest tower. The crevasse grew narrower further down, whilst the opposite wall rose vertically out of the darkness covered with icicles. The guide, Bannholzer, who was annoyed at the loss of the cap, called out at once that he would see where it was, and, in spite of all dissuasion, had the rope tied round his body, and let himself slide down into the awful depth. When he had got some way down, having got a footing on an ice pillar that threatened to give way every moment, he saw the lost cap lying still some way below him. The rope, held by the two men above, was not long enough. The foolhardy Bannholzer untied himself and got further down. After an anxious pause he gave an exulting cry. He had got his prey, and came up again to daylight. Although he had been to a depth of at least 100 feet, he said that the crevasse continued to an unfathomable depth.Sketches of Life and Nature in the Mountains. |