Then the experience of the officers, with more attention to their duties, and conscientious self-respect, will aid these improvements, in order to avoid a great number of those mishaps which we must attribute to want of superintendence.

"8. Function of the Cavalry since 1814.-Certain officers, not of the cavalry, have considered its action as likely to be only accessory in the operations of future war. Indeed, all the success it has obtained in our modern wars in Africa have only been isolated encounters-a few razzias, whose only result was to prove to the Arabs the mobility of our cavalry, and the good service we can obtain from brave, resolute, enterprising, and well-mounted horsemen.

"Since the first Empire there has been no cavalry action which can be cited as having produced any results of a nature to influence the duration of a campaign against disciplined troops. The function of the cavalry in the Crimea and in Italy was, so to speak, absolutely null, either on account of the nature of the ground, or mismanagement-l'incertitude de la direction. General D'Allonville had a smart affair with the Russians near Eupatoria, but without important results.

"It would have been better, during the Italian campaign, to unite the cavalry divisions of the army in the hands of a single, vigorous, resolute commander, thoroughly impressed with the duties he had to perform, and who would not have shrunk from the responsibility of his mission, instead of dispersing it amongst the different corps d'armée, where it was under the orders of officers who were strangers to its tactical handling. The cavalry would have won a lustre before which all the other arms would now incline with approbation.

"Having called to mind the services of the cavalry in ancient and modern times, when it has been opportunely and properly led into action, we have examined the improvements which must be introduced in the nature of the horses, recruiting, the instruction and harness of the cavalry, in order to raise it to the level of the progress made by the other branches of the service, and dispel the sort of disfavour under which it labours with regard to its employment and utility in armies.

"The principal object of an army being to give battle, the action must be planned according to the topographical distribution of the ground of operations. If the battle is in a plain, the most important part is played by the cavalry. If the latter is badly engaged, it is very rare that the army is not defeated. If, on the contrary, it is well led, and gains an advantage, the battle is probably won, and the success is rendered complete in all its results.

"When the army is weak in cavalry, it should occupy the heights, entrench itself, and wait for re-inforcements, as did Gustavus Adolphus in abandoning the plains of Poland and retiring into Prussia. But, whatever may be the theatre of war, the different kinds of cavalry are always necessary to strategical operations. In all cases, it is essentially important to confide its direction only to commanders of great experience, and especially to avoid parcelling it out, and placing it under the orders of infantry officers, who, in spite of their military education, do not habitually employ it usefully when the occasion presents itself, and know not how to spare it when its aid is unnecessary.

"We shall now endeavour to point out, by a new system of tactics, the means to be employed to avoid the disastrous effects of the improved firearms, and the different preparatory dispositions for attacking the enemy, -the cavalry charges, and their effect.

9.

Raking Charges-Charges Rasantes.-We believe that we must modify the means of attack, and plan them so as to lose as few men as possible, and with this object, instead of direct charges on the faces of à square or on a deployed line, we must, at full speed, execute raking charges, presenting the right hand to the enemy-the horsemen breaking individually at intervals of two yards from each other, at the top of their speed, for, should they slacken pace or stop, they would be soon decimated by the balls of the infantry. We must rake the enemy's line at very close quarters, and threaten the eyes of the foot soldier with the point of the sword or the lance, so as to make him come to the parry by raising his bayonet.

"Companies, squadrons, or whole regiments executing such charges, will inflict immense damage upon the infantry, without themselves sustaining notable losses; for, armed with his sword, the horseman can deliver point through a raking space of from 60 to 80 yards.

"From these data, we can calculate how many horsemen must be placed in file in order that the foot soldiers charged by them may be killed or

disabled.

"Nevertheless, these raking charges must be executed only by horsemen completely masters of their horses, and skilful in wielding their sword.

"We must never forget that men must be required to do only what they can do well. They will always boldly undertake to do what they are sure they can do. If they are not sufficiently trained it is important not to expose them uselessly. We must spare them, reserve them for circumstances offering a chance of success, and give them the opportunity to win distinction which will enhance their dash, invigorate their hopes, and confirm their resolves.*

* Of all French conceptions, so wonderfully fruitful in resources, this last method of cavalry attack is decidedly the most brilliant, and it demands our most serious attention. Of course it presupposes the utmost training in man and horse. There can be no doubt, however, that it will be put in practice by the French cavalry, being precisely the sort of work suited to their fiery nature. It is impossible to underrate the moral effect on the infantry squares of such a mode of cavalry attack; the staunchest might well quail for a moment in such a dreadful onslaught. Yet, doubtless, we shall be conceitedly told that the standing ranks will "pour in a deadly volley," and easily settle the matter. With what aim? But even then they will have scarcely more than the chance of their preparatory loading. They may topple over a few of the first chargers; but, by the very proposition, whole squadrons and regiments will follow up the move in this hideous succession, and give no time to load again. And then the rapidity of this raking charge--the rush of the steam-engine or the whirlwind re-produced, strewing destruction on its path!

The only remedy is the utmost skill in the use of the bayonet, with the utmost practice in the appropriate parry for such an encounter, if we retain the old formation of squares, presenting the parallel front on which this mode of attack is founded.

But the most effectual mode of paralysing this new system of cavalry-attack is the French formation of solid circles. For it will be very difficult, if not impossible, for a horseman to deliver effectual point, at the top of his speed, with one hand, whilst the other must direct his horse continually inwards round the circle. The most skilful circutrider will find it difficult to keep his seat in such a manoeuvre. Still, the French cavalry is assiduously practised in the "outwards about wheel," circles and curves in great variety, apparently for the raking charge against any formation whatever. If our usual square be retained, I apprehend that, against this contemplated raking charge, the threatened face should make a left half-face, thus bringing their bayonets in position, with the

"10. Charging by the Angles.-The method of charging by the angles is more advantageous and less murderous. It may happen that the cavalry is required to attempt a charge on a deployed line or a battalion in square at the commencement of an action, when the rifles are in full power, and proper slope, and that the face opposite to the direction of the charge should make a right half-face, so that the standing ranks may fire on the advancing cavalry. As this face is not immediately threatened, it will probably deal deliberate and effective shots on the "raking chargers," if it does not fire too soon. On the other hand, this mode of charg ing confirms still more the opinion in France, that small squares are better than battalion squares. A horse killed in the charge frequently does more damage than his rider, by tumbling on the extended face of the great squares, whereas he might miss the men in small ones, and fall on the flanks. Besides, the latter are more quickly formed. Of course the case is different in such battles as Napoleon's at Gizeh, and Dessaix's at Sediman-both models of formation against preponderating cavalry; but even herein the great squares were flanked by small squares, at the angles especially. The following is the French method of forming the solid circle in skirmishing-drill. By sections-rally." At this command the leaders of sections run quickly to the centregroup of their sections, or to another group more inwards, whose position offers shelter, or an advantageous position; the skirmishers run together at full speed, without distinction of numbers upon that group. The men composing the groups which are the bases of the movement, instantly form square and raise their rifle, the point of the bayonet over head, in order to indicate the rallying point. The other skirmishers, as they come in, place themselves at the angles left vacant between the four first, and successively round this first nucleus, so as rapidly to form a solid circle on the primitive square. The outer rank comes to the position "charge-bayonets" standing, the point of the bayonet more elevated, and full cock the rifle. When the movement is completed the two outer ranks load without stirring, and make the best defence they can.

"The officers and non-commissioned officers must see with the utmost attention that the rally is performed in silence, with the utmost promptitude, and without confusion, and the firing be properly directed so as to be efficacious."

The following woodcut shows the solid circle, the third concentric ring being in the course of formation.

If the shock of infantry charging is far more a moral impression than a physical pressure, how much more efficacious in that respect must be such a raking charge as intended! We know that in battle the eyes are the first to be conquered, in omni prælio oculi primi vincuntur, and we say that "the contest is merely a moral one;" and so we must render ourselves familiar with the "idea" beforehand, and be ready to bear its brunt in practice, and render it null and void, if we can, by a steady eye, firm foot, and unflinching resolution. The formation of the solid circle is from the "Ecole de Tirailleurs," of which it has been truly said, that "nothing more simple, succinct, and to the purpose, can be desired than these 40 pages in 16mo. of which a good portion are 'observations."" The great innovation is the grouping in fours, which forms the manoeuvring unit, and the idea is carried through. It is this skirmishing brotherhood which forms the basis of the whole. They are taught to consider themselves as so many groups, and are left to their own discretion in rallying. The nearest group and the shortest way is the rule. These groups are, as it were, intermediate links between the single skirmishers and the whole body of skirmishers. Whoever saw or did skirmishing knows the value of this, especially in the rallying to resist cavalry or foragers. There is not much question of the right and left as immovable points; but right is right, and left is left, with regard to the direction in which the movement is to take place. The circle is extensively used as the simplest form of rallying the groups of four in larger ones. This idea is said to be American, but I believe it to be essentially French.

The squares are formed on the same principles as in the large evolutions, and these principles are the simplest. If in column of divisions of two companies the distances between them are reduced, the first and fourth remain in their places, half of the second faces right, the other half left, the centre sections of the third remain as reserves, while

What

the morale of the men is untried. The horseman, armed with his sword or his lance, falls upon the foot-soldier armed with his rifle. If the latter were isolated, his movements would be free-he might turn and deliver his bullet into the breast of the horseman; but, instead of being isolated, the foot-soldiers are packed together in a line, or framed, as it were. ever the number of the horsemen, there are always four or six foot-soldiers to one horseman, according to the depth of the ranks, and the latter will be exposed to four or six bullets instead of one, which he can avoid, at the angles, by the velocity of his raking charge.

"11. Posting of the Cavalry-reserves in Battle.-It is only by a wellconsidered individual training that we can secure a vigorous and dashing cavalry. In battle we must avoid keeping it in masses too near the infantry. The deep ranks of a close column have, it is true, the advantage of uniting the troops and reserves, and enables us to dissimulate their number; but such a disposition in the presence of the fire-arms now in use would cause immense misfortunes, and damage the morale of the cavalry by losses which it would be difficult to repair. To conciliate the matter,

it is therefore important to form several columns at deployment intervals. "We do not manœuvre much in war. The simplest movements are the best. Skill consists in seizing the opportunity by the forelock. We must attack the enemy on his weak side, take advantage of the least fault he makes, and fall upon him when he is deploying.

"It is essential to study the enemy's situation, shake his morale by the effect of our artillery, especially when he is in position or covered by obstacles. We must endeavour to surprise him by the rapidity of our attacks. In the front of the squadrons we must always be preceded by scouts on the right and the left, at the distance of 50 or 60 paces, to reconnoitre the ground of operations.

"Cavalry charges must be prepared beforehand in order to succeed.

It

is therefore the general's duty to get exactly acquainted with the nature of the ground. A mere nothing suffices to ensure their failure; an inequality of the ground, a bad direction, the incapacity of the leader, the exhaustion of the horses, the tumult, the effects of artillery, the discouragement resulting from a succession of failures, &c.

"Charges may be made in line, in column, in echelon, and in extended order (en fourrageurs).

the flank sections face right and left. If the front is only one company, an oblong square is formed by the first and last company remaining in their places, and the rest, with the exception of the seventh, forming the reserve, facing right and left. The most remarkable and important part, then, of the new infantry instructions is the part relating to skirmishing, which would be worth a translation and study if only on the part of the Volunteers, although many hints might be likewise derived for the primary instruction from the "Ecole du Soldat." It is less stiff and more adapted for Volunteers, who surely would not like to be considered as machines. Perhaps our formation of square is scarcely quick enough in the present eventualities. When in danger of cavalry a company could form effective square to the simple words, "Fours-deep-cavalry—ready,” and save precious time. A company marching in fours is already in position to form square. More backs would thus be felt, and there is nothing like feeling a back when on the defensive. The square-formations are amongst the most important " developments" of the new French battalion-drill: there is one particularly worthy of study, "Column against Cavalry." See "Ecole de Bataillon," p. 205. The last company but one always acts as reserves "to the squares. It is said that four successive and well-directed discharges, from four ranks, will stop the best cavalry.

"The chief object is to fall suddenly and obliquely on the flanks of the enemy, masking the movement with a curtain of light troops in a single rank. These sham attacks, especially if veiled by a cloud of dust, threaten the battalions against which they are directed. It may happen that infantry, without experience and untrained, gets disconcerted by these movements, fires at random on this curtain, whose thin line nullifies the effect of most of the shots, hurriedly reloads, does so in disorder and with agitation, thus presenting a splendid chance of a murderous charge, especially if charged by heavy cavalry.

"11. Speed of the Cavalry charging Artillery and Infantry.-Numerous exercises have shown by favourable trials that we can estimate the advance of cavalry according to the following data. Fixing the precise point where we may begin to charge at 550 metres (about 600 yards), a light-horseman advancing against a battery, first walking, then successively at the trot, the gallop, and the charge, will be up in 2 minutes and 24 seconds, arranging his rates as follows:-95 seconds walking, 28 at the trot, 13 at the gallop, and 8 at the charge. He will have done the distance at the rate of about 4 yards per second, and during the same time (2 minutes and 24 seconds) the battery might fire 13 shots of 6-pounders.* The same horseman doing the distance without the transitions will only take 113 seconds, which gives 5 yards 15 inches per second.

"If we apply the same researches to the charge against infantry, we find that the horseman, commencing it at 370 metres (about 400 yards), does the distance in 50 seconds, receiving three shots, and with the speed of nearly 8 yards per second.

"It is important to remember that the sword-point exerts its effect at the distance of 25 inches, whilst the bayonet does not project in front of the soldier more than 20 inches when in position against cavalry charging.

"It is a pity that cavalry officers remain indifferent to the study of these important questions, and it is desirable that experiments should be tried at the camps of Châlons, Versailles, and Lunéville, in order to transform into precepts the data of experience.

"12. Charges against Infantry and Cavalry.-Charges against infantry and cavalry have the same object, namely, to rake, to penetrate the troops against which they are directed. It is essential to seize the opportune moment-a deployment, a retreat, a crossing of a defile, an obstacle forcing a reduction of the front, and to act with such cohesion as will break through all resistance.

"13. Charges against Artillery.-The case is different with artillery. These charges are performed by the individual movement of a line of horsemen dispersed in extended order-en fourrageurs-presenting to the enemy only scattered men, but all making for the battery to take it in the front, on the flanks, in the rear-at the same time-with the utmost dash and impetuosity. They strive to turn the positions, to attack the supports by their weak side, to harass their retreat, shake the morale of the drivers, cut the traces, spike the guns if they cannot be carried off, using a small hatchet-hammer-in fine, employing all means to silence and shut up that battery completely.

The French rate their howitzers, &c. according to the diameter of the ball-but the measure may be taken as the weight in lbs. Eng.