7. Governments called aristocracies, have also existed; but no government properly called an aristocracy is known to exist at the present time. The word is applied to a government which is in the hands of a few persons of rank and wealth. The aristocratic principle, however, is preserved in the British house of lords.

§ 8. But the form of government which prevails in this country is different from all those which have been described. It is a republican government. A republic is a form of government in which the public, the people, enjoy common rights and privileges. Hence the name of commonwealth is sometimes applied to a republican government; as a thing is said to be common when it is enjoyed by persons generally, or by all. Hence also the word community, which signifies the people living under the same laws, and enjoying the same privileges. Every state in the union is a republic.

§ 9. In a republic the political power is with the people; and therefore the government is free. Hence our government is sometimes called a democracy; and perhaps the words republic and democracy had formerly the same meaning. But our government is materially different from such a democracy as has been described. In a republic like ours, the people do not all assemble in a body to make laws as in a pure democracy. The laws are made by a small number of men called representatives, who are chosen by the people for that purpose. The people also choose persons to transact the other business that needs to be done.

§ 10. Our government is therefore a representative government, or a representative republic. A representative is a person chosen or employed by others to make known their wishes, and to transact their business. A representative is therefore an agent. The word agent, however, more frequently denotes a person intrusted with the business of private individuals; by representative is generally understood one who is chosen to assist in enacting the laws. All public agents and representatives are called officers.

§11. Notwithstanding power in our government is divided

$8. What is the government of this country called? What is a republic? What other name is it called by? Why? 9. In what is our government different from a simple democracy? 10. What, then, is our government properly called? What is a representative? $ 11. In what respect are

among a great many different classes of officers, instead of being exercised by the great body of the people in person, as in a simple democracy, both governments are alike in this, that all power, however differently exercised, comes from the people. Both are such governments as the people choose for themselves, and therefore both are equally free.

§ 12. The form of government in the United States is expressed in a written instrument, called a constitution. A constitution is a form of rules by which the members of a society agree to be governed. Every society or association commonly so called, has a constitution. The persons forming the association draft a set of rules, stating the object of the society, what officers it shall have, what each is to do, and how its operations shall be carried on. These rules are called the constitution of the society. So the rules that are adopted by the members of the civil society, where the people are free, are called the constitution. They are in the nature of articles of agreement, by which the people mutually agree to be governed.

§13. A constitution is a kind of law; not, however, such a law as those which are made by the representatives of the people. It is a law made by the people themselves, directing what the government shall be, what officers are to be elected, and what duties they are to perform. It prescribes also what laws may, and what may not be made: hence it is sometimes called the fundamental law, being the foundation of all other laws, which must conform to or agree with the fundamental law. It is also called a frame of government, and may be compared to the frame of a building. The frame gives form and shape to the building; and every additional timber and plank required to finish it, must be fitted to the frame. So every law that is made, and every act that is done by the officers of the government, must conform to the constitution.

§ 14. The constitution is also called the political law, because it is the law of the political body, or body politic. By body politic is meant the people of the state incorporated into one body for the purpose of government. As the law

the two governments alike? 12. What is a constitution? What does it declare? 13. Why is a constitution called the fundamental law? To what is it compared? 14. Why is it called the political law? What is moant by body politic? In what does a political law differ from a civil or

of the whole people in their political capacity, the constitution is properly the political law, as distinguished from the laws made by the people's representatives, which are called the civil or municipal laws.

15. Now it appears from what has been said, that a constitution is a law; but not every law is a constitution. A constitution is made by the act of the people, and constitutes their form of government; the laws are acts of the legislature, which are necessary in carrying on the government, and regulating the conduct of the citizens.

16. It appears also, that the first and highest act of a free people, is the choice of a constitution or form of government for themselves. Hence, in no country do the people enjoy greater political privileges than in the United States. In most governments there is either no constitution at all, or none that is made by the people. In such governments the people are not free. The people of Great Britain enjoy a good degree of civil liberty, and we hear of the British con. stitution; but it is not a written instrument like ours, adopted by the free vote of the people. Not having such a constitution to restrain their rulers, the people are liable to suffer, and often do suffer from the enactment of unjust laws.

CHAPTER III.

How the present Form of Government came to be established in this country.

1. In the two preceding chapters, I have endeavored to explain to my young fellow-citizens the principles of government in such a manner as to give them a knowledge of what civil government is, and of the nature and necessity of human laws; and I have described several of the different forms of government. In this chapter I shall show how the present municipal law? 15. Is every law a constitution? State again the difference between them. 16. What is the most important act of a free people? Do the people in most governments enjoy this privilege? What is said of the people of Great Britain and the British constitution?

1. What has been explained and described in the two former chapters}

form of government came to be introduced and established in this country.

§ 2. It is presumed that the youngest of my readers know, that the people of the United States have not always lived under their present excellent form of government. For more than one hundred and fifty years after the first settle. ment of this country, they were subject to the government of Great Britain. The present year, (1843,) is the 67th since the American colonies, now states, separated themselves from the parent country, and claimed the right to establish a government for themselves.

A few

3. This country was first settled by the English, who claimed it by right of discovery, they having discovered it in 1497, about five years after Columbus had discovered the West India islands. The first permanent settlement, however, was not made until the year 1607, when a colony of 105 persons settled at Jamestown, in Virginia. years afterwards, (1620,) a colony was planted in Plymouth, in Massachusetts. After this the number of colonies rapidly increased to twelve, the last of which, Pennsylvania, was settled in 1681. About fifty years thereafter, (1732,) Georgia was settled, the last of the thirteen which declared themselves free and independent states.

§ 4. During their connection with Great Britain, the government of the colonies was not one of their own choice, but such as the king was pleased to institute for them. Each colony had a separate and distinct government; but the governments in the different colonies were in many particu. lars alike. The powers of government were generally vested in a governor, a council, and an assembly of representatives chosen by the people. These three branches corresponded to the king, the nobles, and the commons, in the government of Great Britain. Power was therefore divided in those governments in nearly the same manner as it is in the states at present; for there is in every state a governor, a senate, and a representative assembly.

$2. To what government were the people of this country formerly subject! How long? What is a colony? 3. When did the English discover this country? When and where was the first settlement made? What is said of others? 4. What is said about the government of the colonies while connected with Great Britain? Were they all governed alike? §5. Im

$5. There is, however, an important difference between those governments and the present. The people of the colonies were not allowed to choose a constitution or form of government for themselves; nor had they the privilege of choosing the officers of the different departments of the government. The governors were appointed either by the king, or by such persons as had authority from the king to appoint them; and they were generally under the control of the king, who kept them in office as long or as short a time as he pleased.

§ 6. The council was composed of a small number of men, also appointed by the king, and subject to his pleasure. This body constituted one branch of the legislature. The judges and magistrates, and other officers, were appointed by the governors, or by the king, or other persons who appointed the governors.

§7. Hence it appears that only one branch of the law. making power was chosen by the people, while the other two, he governor and council, were appointed by the king, or were subject to him, as were also the other officers of the government. Although one branch of the legislature was composed of men chosen by the people, the people could not always get such laws enacted as they wished; because both the governor and the council must agree to every measure which the people's representatives might propose; and then, when agreed to by them, it must be sent to England and subitted to the king, who also must give it his approval before it could be a law.

§ 8. In a few of the colonies, however, the people enjoyed greater privileges. In Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, for some years before the revolution, they elected their governors and both houses of the legislature. But even in these colonies no laws might be enacted that were contrary to the laws of England. And the privileges which they did enjoy were granted by the king, and might at any time be taken away from them at his pleasure.

what respect did those governments differ from the present? Who appointed the governors? 6. How was the council composed? How were other officers appointed? 7. What officers were chosen by the people? Could te people have such laws as they wished? Why not? 8. In what colonies did the people choose di governors and legislatures? 9. What