China and Japan is paternal and not socialistic. Even in Japan the extension of government control now taking place is paternalistic in character and is not due to socialistic convictions, but is the result of the necessities of war. The question may be of interest to sociologists as to whether government will pass directly from the paternalistic to the socialistic type in these countries under western influence, or whether the course will be by way of the individual. If the latter, who is to create the individual?

The relation between friend and friend is being expanded into a conception of universal brotherhood. One of the ancients in China said, “Our country is only one district of the Eastern Sea," meaning that there are other countries. Yet the Chinese have never had a conception of humanity as a whole and of all men as occupying common ground. No expression is of more frequent occurrence in Chinese classics than "Tenka” or “all under heaven," meaning society or the people. But the context invariably shows that "all under heaven" is a term which refers only to those under Chinese skies. A great obstacle in Japan in the way of a free recognition of the rights of man and the brotherhood of nations is the Shinto mythology upon which the Imperial House is founded.

A new problem is arising with the rise of capital and labor as to the relation between the employer and the employed. A need is felt for a new virtue not included in the ancient scheme. The type of the ideal relationship in the factory cannot be found in that between sovereign and minister, or between parent and child, or between husband and wife, or between the elder and the younger, or even in the relation between friend and friend. Though manufacture has shifted from the domestic circle to the great factory plants, no transfer of the domestic virtues is possible; and though the old feudal population has assumed a new relationship after entering into industry-the relation of employer and employed-the virtue of loyalty is not effective in workshop or factory. What that virtue is which should bind men together in the new industrial order in harmonious relationship the Japanese and Chinese are seeking to discover. We, on our side of the world, are interested in finding the answer to that same question.

EDWIN L. EARP, DREW THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY

I wish to express my hearty appreciation of the two excellent and illuminating papers just presented by Dr. Ross and Dr. Capen. I wish to speak of two things that have been suggested to me by Professor Ross's paper. The first is this. His graphic portrayal of the social conditions of the people of inner China, coming from one who has witnessed them as a scientist without any religious bias, is one of the strongest motive forces for missionary appeal, both to men to give of their means for missions in China, and for young men and women to invest their lives in this field, that I have ever heard or read. The second is what he said with reference to democracy in China: that it would take twice as long for China to advance in

western civilization as it took Japan, because of the difference in the forms of government prevailing in these countries respectively. This is an important fact that some people in our own country need to remember, that an over-individualized democracy is incompatible with orderly social control, and that there are governments that have the name of democracy where there is less freedom and orderly control than in governments that do not have the name. Some South American republics furnish illustrations. Therefore it seems to me that sociology and political science should play an important part in the preparation of the missionary and the foreign teacher who together are to be the most important factors in the development of that orderly social control that Professor Ross has shown us is so greatly needed in inner China.

GEORGE ELLIOTT HOWARD, UNIVERSITY OF NEbraska

Dr. Ross's estimate that awakened China may need at least double the time required by Japan to bring her ideals into a like degree of harmony with occidental standards is highly interesting and it appears to be well grounded in the facts which he has presented. Especially impressive is his disclosure of the immense ethnic and cultural mass which has to be leavened before that goal can be reached. The lack of a social consciousness, the extreme individualism as to standards of conduct, must prove a hindrance which will be very hard to overcome. Still, all things considered, if China can reach the point where Japan now is, even in the double term, that will be making amazing speed in social transformation. Three facts seem to sustain the view that China's advance will be rapid:

1. The Chinese have a lofty ideal of individual worth. Social or civic rank rests upon an educational test. There is no hereditary nobility, no aristocracy of birth. Thus, at bottom, the civic ideal of the Chinese is thoroughly democratic. The conception of what constitutes a proper education may not be high. Until recently, the quality of a candidate's education may have been determined by mere memory tests in antiquated classics, affording very little help in the problems of actual life. Still, the Chinese ideal of civic honor is an educational ideal. As a factor in civilization, this truth can hardly be overvalued. The new China will not need a new incentive in this regard. She will need only to satisfy the educational ideal which has existed for centuries, by directing it toward the science, the learning, of the West.

2. The high degree of self-control which the respective provinces of the empire enjoy is a good preparation for local self-government under the coming constitutional régime. We are told, for instance, that in large measure each province creates and controls its own army; and that in various governmental functions it is nearly autonomous. It may not prove to be a mere fancy to suppose, for this reason, that in a comparatively short time China may become a federal state. Will it be on the German or on the American pattern?

3. The Chinese have high ethical ideals. In its original or uncorrupted form, much of the philosophy of Confucius is of decided value, even when gauged by western standards. Moreover, we hear that as a part of the general awakening among the Chinese the purer teachings of Confucius are being revived. Then the high standard of commercial ethics attained by the Chinese is of real significance in this connection. In the official service there may be monstrous graft. This is due to the extreme individualism, to the lack of social consciousness; but in commerce the Chinese have developed a remarkably advanced ideal of honor, of ethical conduct. Surely, in the new and larger industrial life which is bound to come with the reconstructed China, this achievement will be a precious asset. I feel sure that the Chinese, mentally, socially, and ethically, are destined to play a great rôle in civilization.

REPLY BY E. W. CAPEN TO QUESTION OF PROFESSOR SMALL

The introductory words of the President, stating that I was sent on this tour of investigation by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, and which it seemed courteous for me not to deny, were not in strict accordance with the facts. For three years previous to the trip, I had been engaged in literary and research work for the American Board, but this connection ceased before I started, and the trip was entirely a private one for the purpose of studying the social conditions in the East as they had been affected by and as they in turn affected the work of the missionaries. It was only my relation to the president of the American Board which gave the trip even the semblance of being official. Hence I have never made any regular report to the officers of the board, although I did from time to time give them an account of my impressions and conclusions. So far as I know, there is no position taken in the paper under discussion which would not commend itself to the officers of the board. The American Board has been one of the pioneers in putting its missionary work upon the broadest basis, and it has for many years been developing the work of education, industrial training, and medical relief. Most of the larger mission boards are one with it in this position, and it was interesting to note that at the World Missionary Conference at Edinburgh last June, at which delegates from all mission boards and mission lands, officers, missionaries, native leaders, etc., were present, the whole tone and trend of discussion was on the broadest lines. There are mission boards and missionaries who do not yet admit fully this point of view, but the leaders in the work at home and abroad are men who are fully in touch with the best thought of the age and who are committed to carrying on the missionary work in the way that will make it the most influential in putting the Christian touch upon the awakening Orient.

THE RACIAL ELEMENT IN SOCIAL ASSIMILATION

ULYSSES G. WEATHERLY
Indiana University

There are three historical stages in the evolution of organized society, the tribe, the state, and the nation. Corresponding with these stages are three principles of organization, kinship, authority, and citizenship. The order of these principles conforms in general to the Spencerian law of growth, for they represent a progressive change from simplicity to complexity and an increasing integration and heterogeneity. In the kinship period civilization is wholly genetic, in the ethnic period largely so. In these two periods social growth is in some degree analogous to the growth of animal species. Primitive contacts are confined largely to kindred. Now ideas of contact, as Crawley has so conclusively shown, are at the basis of all conceptions of human relations at every stage of culture. Contact is the single general test, as it is the most elementary form, of mutual relations.1

In the kinship group a high degree of intensive association is generated through mere propinquity, while a corresponding avoidance of outside contacts prevents the growth of that sympathy between groups without which even the most elementary forms of co-operation are impossible. "To primitive thought a stranger is a potential foe." Social standards being fixed wholly within the group itself, that which does not conform to these is regarded not only as alien but as immoral. Ethical dualism, the illuminating phrase for which sociologists are indebted to Professor Ross, exactly defines the conventional status of the individual with reference to his own group and with reference to outside groups. It is not true, however, that ethical dualism ceases with the end of the kinship period or even the ethnic period. In his social relations modern social'Crawley, The Mystic Rose, 76, and passim. 'Ibid., 141.

ized man is still largely influenced as to his choices and his contacts by special preference for the members of his own class, party, fraternal order, church, or country. The word foreigner or outlander still carries something of its original significance of disassociation and antipathy.

In the historical period race always connotes something more than an enlarged family group, for it represents a positive advance toward cultural unity. As Bauer puts it, race involves both a Naturgemeinschaft and a Kulturgemeinschaft.* When a race has sufficiently emerged to become a recognized entity its members have already developed a consciousness of kind which, while retaining something of the narrow exclusiveness of the kinship period, is nevertheless increasingly dominated by cultural rather than physical forces. Gumplowicz declares that "a race cannot now be at all thought of as a mere natural concept in the narrow sense of the word, but it is everywhere a historical concept; it is not a product of the bare natural process in the present meaning of that term, but is the product of a historical process, which nevertheless is also a natural process. A race is a unity developed in the course of history in and through social evolution."5

Every great historical race is therefore a composite of originally separate elements merged into a unity whose ruling characteristic is an increasing integration of culture rather than of blood. This process of merging (Verschmelzung) is believed by Gumplowicz to constitute the very essence of world-history. "Throughout the whole history of man stretches a continuous process of amalgamation which, beginning with the smallest primitive synthetic groups and following a race-building law to us unknown, binds together and amalgamates small heterogeneous groups into ever larger unities, into peoples, races and

"It may be doubted whether any character can be named which is distinctive of a race and is constant. Savages, even within the limits of the same tribe, are not nearly so uniform in character as has been often asserted."-Darwin, Descent of Man, 174.

"Le fait race, capital à l'origine, va donc toujours perdant de son importance."-Renan, Discourses et conférences, 2d ed., 297.

'Die Nationalitätenfrage und die Sozialdemocratie, 20, 21.

Der Rassenkampf, 193. Both this and the following citation are from the first edition of Der Rassenkampf, Innsbruck, 1883.