There is still another aspect of sociology deemed worthy of emphasis in our teaching. The historical method should be applied to sociological theories themselves and the great social theories of past generations should be studied and compared with the teachings of the sociologists of the nineteenth century. By this method fundamental agreements and differences can be noted, the trend in the current of sociological theorizing can be indicated, and from the teaching of all of these thinkers can slowly be constructed a framework which later writers may fill out in detail. Furthermore such a historical study will enable the student to see why sociology in its upward march has been influenced first by mechanical theories of development, then by biological analogies resulting in the organic interpretation of society, then by the rise of the "social mind" under the influence of the newer psychology, and how, throughout the entire period, the conclusions of economics as the most fundamental of all the special social sciences have exercised a powerful influence on sociological theory.

Now when once the student grasps the thought that sociology is not to be identified with concrete studies of social problems, nor with economic, political, ethical, psychological, or biological studies as such, but rather with broad generalizations found in these as laws and principles of human association, and when furthermore he sees that others before him have labored to arrange in systematic and logical form these fundamentals, he is then prepared to see the real meaning of sociology as an abstract science. Indeed it is better that he should see this than that he become expert in what is often referred to as "social pathology" or "social philanthropy." If only he can be brought to see that there are fundamental teachings underlying human association, he will in later and more concrete studies tend to "put things in their places" and will not lose himself in detail, as might be possible if he were allowed to devote his energy exclusively to the innumerable perplexing problems of our highly complex civilization.

When once the student can be brought to see that in theory at least there may be a science of sociology, the remaining task should then be comparatively easy. He starts with an attitude of

mind, a way of looking at and of interpreting social phenomena, and a reliance on the methods of science in order to secure verifiable knowledge. With Comte he will learn gradually to abjure metaphysical discussions. Admitting, as one must, that final explanations and questions in respect to the ultimate are worth asking and may at some distant time be answered, yet it seems more worth while to relegate this search to philosophy and to content one's self with an anthropocentric interpretation of things taking place on the earth or at most within the solar system. By ignoring the ultimate in this manner the sociologist admits an "ignoramus" in some matters and hence again may refuse to dogmatize, preferring to emphasize with science the relativity of knowledge. Yet here once more one may have to admit a certain weakness in sociological theorizing. Though the science would preferably base itself on verifiable knowledge, yet in practice, owing to the temporary lack of such knowledge in the newer psychology, it of necessity lapses into the sin of philosophizing on other than scientific data and methods. In discussions involving the use of the terms "worth" or "value," the "social will," or "social ideal," or "social purpose," or the "unity of knowledge," and the like, there is a metaphysical element almost inevitable under present conditions, especially if one is eager to work out at once a complete system of sociology. Yet perhaps some sins may be overlooked if one's sociological conscience is awake and the danger appreciated. In time such hypotheses may become verifiable, and until then one might better admit that there is some basis for charges of inconsistency.

Our final emphasis in the teaching of sociology consists in the attempt to develop in the student a sort of meliorism or optimism in respect to social problems; not a visionary optimism, in essence, fatalism, but an optimism founded on scientific knowledge, on the conviction that the progress of civilization lies in men's hands, and that by scientific prevision society can expedite its own development. Taking warning from the many failures of utopian dreamers, students are rather discouraged from becoming "reformers," but are urged to engage in the constructive movements of civilization. Honest daily work, high ideals, and a forward

look represent a wiser attitude than any number of hobbies in respect to a reconstructed society patterned after a perfect model. This scientific optimism is stimulated by constant emphasis on the possibility of achievement. No normal child, it is argued, is so humbly born but that he by right training and environment may double his natural ability. Talent, genius, the capacity to achieve are dormant in the masses of our population and this potentiality should be made reality. Every student therefore is urged to develop his own personality so as to co-operate in the upbuilding processes of human society. Obviously this aspect may be so emphasized as to develop a sort of religious altruism and this may for a time be necessary. In that case sociology may temporarily form a sort of connecting link between the old and the new. While churches are hesitating on the brink of a sociological plunge it may be well for the sociologist to disport himself in the troubled waters and loudly to assert that the swimming is fine. When hesitation ends and the leap has been made, then the sociologist may climb on to the bank and criticize in cold blood the swimming exhibition before him.

In conclusion may I in résumé briefly summarize the points we emphasize in the teaching of sociology? First and foremost a clear comprehension of the field of sociology including its relation to other sciences and its methods in handling data. Then a constant emphasis on those fundamental teachings that plainly have practical applications to social progress. And finally an inspirational uplift in the direction of courage and hopefulness, even though one has in the end to temper his impatience by the thought, that an ox-cart slowly reaching its destination on an ascending grade is surer of final success than a brakeless automobile speeding on an unknown road.

DISCUSSION

EDWARD C. HAYES, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

The teaching of sociology presents a problem of matter and one of method.

The matter to be taught is broadly divided into two parts, first "General Sociology," or "Pure Sociology," or "Sociology Proper," and, second, that

other body of instruction which is variously termed "Applied Sociology," "Social Economics," or "Social Technology."

The latter summarizes the results of experience and investigation with reference to activities which aim directly at social amelioration in relation to such matters as poverty, crime, immigration, race differences, and the specific dangers and opportunities characteristic of urban or rural communities.

The matter to be presented under "general" or "pure" sociology or sociology "proper" falls into at least five natural divisions.

First is general sociology in the narrowest sense, or what is sometimes referred to as "philosophical" sociology. This treats of such subjects as the scope and method of sociology, the definition of sociological concepts (social reality, a society, institution, custom, etc.) the correlation of these concepts with each other and with others defined by the special social sciences, the classification of all social realities, the kinds of causal conditions by which they are affected, the relation between society and the individual, the doctrines of sociological ethics, etc. The teachings of this division of sociology are partly preliminary to the teachings of the other divisions of pure sociology, and partly based upon them.

Second is psychologic sociology, which treats of the relations between activities (beliefs, desires, etc.) and the other activities, similar or dissimilar, by which they are environed; that is, the relations between the activities of an individual and the activities of his associates by which his own are evoked or modified, and so the building-up of the network of streaming activities possible only to individuals who are in association.

Third is comparative and genetic sociology, represented by such work as has been done by Letourneau, Lippert, Bastian, Westermarck, Sumner, and Thomas. This aims to lay a broad foundation of fact for our knowledge of the origin and succession of species of prevalent social activities and the evolution of the world of social reality.

The fourth division might be called statistical sociology, but that the word "statistical" refers to a method which may be employed in other divisions of sociology although it finds its most constant application here. This fourth division of sociology proper may be called biologic sociology. It deals with the problems of population, the effects upon social activities produced by racial and temperamental traits, and by physical contrasts between manufacturing and agricultural populations of similar stock, and by the physical consequences of prevalent vices, unsanitary housing, and the like.

The fifth division is geographic sociology, the most neglected of all, which studies the causal significance of natural physical environments in determining social activities.

With reference to the manner of teaching Sociology the only point which I will raise pertains to the order of presentation.

I think that most of us who are devoted to the teaching of sociology

proper plunge the beginner into difficult abstract matter which is better adapted to the graduate student than to any but the brightest and most mature undergraduates. This has been my own practice and I propose to try a change of order and to arrange my course in "Sociology One" on "the principle of sixteen to one, sixteen parts fact and one part theory."

Most students who register for "Sociology One" expect a treatment of concrete social realities in which they have already at least a general interest; and they are surprised to be confronted by a body of undreamed-of abstractions. Besides, the natural development of intellectual interest for an individual or a people, seems to begin with definite realities which we wish to modify or control, and then by discovering that we must have deeper and broader comprehension, in order to secure control, to pass over to those generalities and abstractions which at first were repellent but which become absorbing.

I mean to begin by trying to describe the facts of American social life and the conditions by which they are determined. Our university is located in the country and so I intend to employ the stereopticon to show a large part of what is most instructive, not only in one but in many of our greatest cities, and in the country also, among the mountain whites, the lumber camps and mining camps, New England villages, southern plantations, train yards, harbors, factories, and the congested tenements of our immigrant host. And I think that the results of the numerous sociological investigations now going on should be carefully gathered up by a university and utilized for purposes of instruction. I refer to the investigations supported by the Sage endowment, and to such investigations as are being carried on in this city under the direction of Mr. Marsh, whose results supplied the materials for the congestion exhibit of a year ago, and of Mr. Allen, of the "Bureau of Municipal Research," and of Mr. Laidlaw, of the "Federation of Churches and Christian Organizations." Much of this material is presented in the form of tables and diagrams suitable for wall-charts or lantern slides, which can be reproduced, and in so far as it is accurate, should be valuable teaching material. Presently the students can be set to work upon exercises in computation and tabulation based upon data obtained from various sources.

All our presentation of descriptive material and concrete facts will be of value mainly in proportion as it is guided and interpreted by general concepts and leads up to comprehensive views. If in normal times there are in our country four million recipients of public charity, if most of the time during the past fifteen years from sixty to a hundred thousand tramps have been deployed over the United States, if these and numerous similar statements are true our aim must be not merely to state the facts but also to help the students toward a comprehension of the general situation which occasions the continuous recruiting of the standing army of the miserables.

This proposal to revise the character of the initial course in sociology