g. Ennui, savant, carte-blanche, façade, eclat, depôt ? h. Cortes, embargo, Don? i. Adagio, allegro, macaroni? j. Czar, ukase? k. Pagoda, bazar? 1. Amber, camphor? m. Shaster, Veda? n. Chop, hong? o. Gnu, koba? p. Bamboo, gong? q. Tattoo, tabu? r. Cariboo, racoon? ANALYZE the following sentences:

4. He is well versed in the principles or rudiments of the language, and is principally indebted for this to his erudite preceptor.

5. I was yesterday, about sunset, walking in the open fields till the night fell insensibly upon me. I at first amused myself with all the richness and variety of colors which appeared in the western parts of the heavens.-Addison.

6. The beauties of her person and graces of her air combined to make her the most arniable of women, and the charms of her address and conversation aided the impression which her lovely figure made on the hearts of all beholders.-HUME.

7. In the second century of the Christian era, the empire of Rome comprehended the fairest part of the earth and the most civilized portion of mankind.-GIBBON.

SYNTHESIS.

1. Compose a sentence consisting of words derived from the Anglo-Saxon.

2. Compose a sentence consisting of words derived from the Anglo-Norman words.

3. Compose a sentence in which there shall be at least one word derived from the Celtic.

4. Compose a sentence in which there shall be at least one word derived from the Danish.

5. Compose a sentence in which there shall be at least one word derived from the Spanish; and another in which there shall be at least one word derived from the Italian; and another in which there shall be at least one word derived from the Chinese; and so on of the other languages.

Having exhibited the Historical Elements in this First Part, we are prepared, in the Second Part, to enter into the interior of the language, and to learn of what matter it is composed.

PART II

PHONETIC ELEMENTS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

CHAPTER I.

SEPARATE PHONETIC ELEMENTS.

DEFINITIONS.

108. PHONOLOGY, from the Greek pwvý, sound, and λóyos, account, is, in the widest sense, the doctrine or science of sounds. In a limited and proper sense, it is the doctrine or science of the sounds uttered by the human voice in speech. The phonology of the English language, then, is the doctrine of the sounds in the spoken language.

The PHONETIC ELEMENTS of the English language are those elementary sounds in the spoken language which it is the province of phonology to exhibit, both separately and in combination.

These elements are the matter, or the raw material of the language, from which its numerous and expressive combinations are formed. Every word in the language is composed of some of these elements. They should be constantly considered as coming from the producing tongue into the receiving ear, and not be confounded with the letters, their symbols, on the printed page. They are, in the present work, treated in relation to the correct articulation and enunciation of individual words. To eloquence and to music they have a separate relationship, which it is the office of the elocutionist and the music-master to unfold.

ORGANS OF PRODUCTION.

109. The sounds which constitute language are formed by air issuing from the lungs, modified in its passage through the throat and mouth by the organs of speech, at the will of the speaker.

The tones of the human voice are produced by two membranes called the vocal ligaments. These are set in motion by a stream of

air gushing from the lungs. The windpipe is contracted near the mouth by a projecting mass of muscles called the glottis. The edges of the glottis are membranes, and form the vocal ligaments. Ordinarily, these membranous edges are inclined from each other, and, consequently, no vibrations take place during the passage of the breath; but, by the aid of certain muscles, we can place them parallel to each other, when they immediately vibrate and produce a tone. With the aid of other muscles we can increase their tension, and thereby the sharpness of the tone; and by driving the air more forcibly from the lungs, we may increase its loudness. The tone thus formed is modified by the cavities of the throat, nose, and mouth. These modifications form the first elements of articulate language. They are produced, not by the lungs or the windpipe, but by the glottis, the palate, the tongue, the teeth, the lips, which are called the ORGANS OF SPEECH. As the tongue is the principal organ in changing the cavities which modify the tone, it has given its narne to speech, both in the Anglo-Saxon and the Latin, and many other languages.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE PHONETIC ELEMENTS.

§ 110. In the spoken language, the phonetic elements are divided into two classes: I. VOCALIC or VOWEL SOUNDS. II. CONSONANTAL or CONSONANT SOUNDS.

VOCALIC OR VOWEL SOUNDS.

§ 111. VOCALIC SOUNDS are those which can be formed without bringing any parts of the mouth into contact to interrupt the stream of air from the lungs.

Thus the sound of a or o can be pronounced with the mouth partially open, and the breath in one continuous current. The word vowel is from the Latin word vocalis, vocal, through the French voyelle. It means what can be sounded or form voice by itself. Some ambiguity is connected with the use of the word, inasmuch as it not only denotes a sound, but also the letter which represents the sound. In this chapter it is used to denote the sound, and not the letter.

It has been found that the note of a common organ may take the qualities of all the vowel sounds in succession. This is effected merely by lengthening the tube which confines the vibrations. It would seem, therefore, that the peculiar character of the different vowel sounds depends on the length of the cavity which modifies the voice. In pronouncing the a in father, the cavity seems barely,

if at all, extended beyond the throat; in pronouncing the a in all, it reaches to the root of the tongue; and to the middle of the palate in pronouncing the long e in eat; the sound of the long o in oat requires the cavity to be extended to the lips, which must be stretched out to form a cavity long enough to pronounce the u in jute. See GUEST's English Rhythms.

CONSONANTAL OR

CONSONANT SOUNDS.

§ 112. CONSONANTAL SOUNDS are those which can not be formed without bringing the parts of the mouth into contact. Thus the sound indicated by the letter p can not be produced without bringing the lips into contact. So the sound indicated by I can not be pronounced without bringing the tongue. and the roof of the mouth near the teeth into contact.

Though the consonantal sounds can be isolated, that is, separated from the vocalic, yet in practice they are joined to vocalic sounds and pronounced with them. For this reason, this class of sounds can be properly called consonants, from the Latin words con, with, sonans, sounding.

The particular consonantal sound that is produced by interrupting the stream of air which flows out in the production of a vowel sound, depends upon what parts of the mouth are brought into contact.

ARTICULATE SOUNDS.

§ 113. An ARTICULATE SOUND, from articulus, a Latin word for joint, is properly one which is preceded or followed by the closing of the organs of speech, or bringing some parts of the mouth in contact. A consonant is, in the strict sense, an articulation, or an articulate sound; but, in use, the term is frequently extended to vowel sounds. Vowel sounds are produced by the lower organs of speech, and consonantal sounds by the upper. Brute animals utter vowel sounds; man only can utter consonantal sounds.

114. In the analytical examination of words and syllables for the purpose of discovering the elementary sounds of which they are composed, we must withdraw our attention from the letters, and fix upon the sounds themselves. In the common pronunciation of words and syllables, the consonantal sound is not uttered without

it