orator must. He is a man of high sympathies. He has thoughts which he longs to communicate to his audience, that they may feel as he feels. He speaks because he has something which he wishes to say, and not because he wishes to say something. And when, under the influence of his emotions, he rises to address an audience, in his strong sympathy with his hearers, whom he wishes to think as he does, he is prepared to appeal directly to their hearts. Or if he uses the forms of dialectics, it is "logic set on fire" by the ardor of conviction. And if he possess the other attributes of the orator, thoughts will force their way from the well-spring of his heart up to his lips, where words, "like nimble servitors," will skip into their places to supply his wants.

§ 607. Another attribute in the soul of the orator is a strong will, which shows itself in a fixed determination not to give up the cause which he has espoused, if he believes it to be a good one. Firmness of purpose has the same advantage over feebleness and fluctuation, in eloquence, that it has in any other department of human action. Let one come into an assembly determined, at all events, to carry that measure; let him act and speak in accordance with this high resolve, and the impression produced upon the audience will not only be deep, but controlling.

Tenacem propositi virum

Non civium ardor prava jubentium,
Non vultus instantis Tyranni,

Mente quatit solidâ.

The stormy waves of debate roll round him, dashing upon him without moving him. The outbreakings of popular phrensy, the darkening frown of the tyrant terrify him not, shake him not from his firm purpose.

The influence which a man of a strong will has upon others sometimes amounts almost to fascination. He is to them a master-spirit, to be obeyed; a controlling genius, to be followed. All the energies of his nature, his reason and good sense, his imagination and taste, his social affections and passions, his voice and his hand, stand ready to obey the bidding of his will, and, as a consequence, others obey it too. An unconquerable will gave a power to the speeches of Lord

Chatham in Parliament far beyond what their mere ogical argumentation could have done. Men yielded to him because they saw that he would not swerve from his purpose. Opposition shrunk away because it was unavailing. Men sympathized with his mental energy, and willed and acted as he willed.

The orator must have a generous, confiding spirit, if he wishes his audience to have the same spirit toward him. He must have a quick perception of the beautiful in nature and in art, since, in captivating the minds of his hearers, he must instrumentally use the beautiful as well as the true. He must have a heart full of kindly affections toward his audience and toward his species, if he expects his audience and men around him to give him their kindly regards and their influence, their determinations and their votes, if they have votes to give. The mind of the orator always kindles into a sympathetical feeling when brought into contact with the minds. of an audience.

§ 608. Having seen what eloquence is under one view, we can the better understand it when presented under another. If we understand what it is in its matter, we can the better understand what it is in its forms. Having seen what eloquence is in its relation to the soul of the orator, we are prepared to understand what it is in its external manifestation, particularly what it is when expressed in language, whether written or spoken.

Language being, in general, the image of the soul of man, RHETORICAL FORMS are those peculiar forms of language which express or image forth the soul of the orator, as distinguished from other men; or they are those forms of language which he uses for the purpose of bringing the minds of others into the same state with his own mind.

Rhetoric, it is true, employs the whole power of language for the purpose of persuasion: the power of Grammatical forms, of Logical forms, of Poetical forms, and also of its own peculiar forms. Logic would be contented with one principal form, namely, the Proposition in its various uses; and for this, Grammar would be contented to furnish two parts of speech, the Substantive and the Verb. But the form of a

sentence that will satisfy logic, rhetoric will reject as tame and unexpressive, and demand what is vivid and striking. Logic says, "My will is that you should come." Rhetoric says, vividly, "Come!" Logic says, "Men are ungrateful." Rhetoric exclaims, "O the ingratitude of men!" Logic says, "I wish to know who thou art." Rhetoric calls out, "Who

art thou?"

§ 609. Rhetorical forms are of great value as the MEDIUM of INTELLECTION, whether truth is to be communicated by the tongue or the pen. Thus an abstract truth, which is but shadowy in conception, and difficult of description, becomes distinct by being associated with some sensible object which illustrates it, just as a diagram illustrates a truth in Geometry. The human mind has to lean upon matter. In the communication and the reception of abstract truth, it has to depend largely upon figurative language drawn from the material world. Thus those rhetorical forms which may be regarded as equivalent to what is called Figurative Language furnish the means to the speaker and to the hearer, the one for communicating, and the other for receiving an idea, how. ever refined or abstract it may be. By this aid, in bringing them into communication with each other, the two can be come one in thought, feeling, and purpose. The watch-word in battle or in revolution often derives much of its magical power from a sentiment expressed in some rhetorical form, which, passing from lip to lip, carries the same feeling from heart to heart. Thus "England expects every man to do his duty!" is a rhetorical form, called Personification.

§ 610. A familiarity with rhetorical forms is of great EsTHETICAL VALUE to the Linguist, not only because it assists him to perceive the import and beauty of a thought, which would otherwise be concealed under its drapery, but also because it enables him at pleasure to produce similar forms in their beauty and force. Language is, to a great extent, deflected from its literal to a figurative use. He who is dull in understanding, and applying it in its figurative use, can perceive and communicate only a small part of its meaning. Words arranged in rhetorical forms he can read in books, but to him they are dead forms. He can employ them in his

Said a

own writings, but it may be only to disgust others.
sensible man, somewhat deficient in taste, "A figure is to
me an edged tool, with which I always wound myself."

§ 611. Moreover, Rhetoric, by its disturbing force, often INTERFERES WITH THE GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION AND THE LOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF SENTENCES. He, therefore, who does not understand that interference, can not be a good Grammarian or a good Logician. Many a case of anomalous syntax can be explained only upon rhetorical grounds. Many an error has gained currency from mistaking rhetoric for logic. "Take, eat; this is my body." Is this a Logical form, or is it a Rhetorical form? In the Roman Catholic faith it is the first; in the Protestant, the second.

§ 612. The Question may often arise, Whether, in a given sentence, there is a rhetorical form? Now it must be conceded that it is not always easy to answer this question. If you go back to the most ancient usage of a given word, you would perhaps decide that it is figurative in its application; whereas, if you consult only present use, it is plain and literal. The same word may, therefore, be regarded as tropical by one person who goes back to its origin, and not tropical by another who does not thus go back to its original meaning. The number of radical words in a language is comparatively few, and are chiefly applied to physical objects. As men found the stock of their ideas increasing, instead of inventing new terms to describe them, they applied old words with an extended or changed meaning, or, what is the same thing, used them figuratively. In this way the great body of words in a language have, in one stage of their history or another, been used tropically. The word imagination, derived from image, a term applied to a sensible object, was, on its first application to a mental faculty or operation, tropical. it ceased to be tropical when it had been used so long that its secondary meaning became indissolubly fixed as the principal one, or, indeed, to most minds, as its only one. Imagination can not now be considered as a figurative term. It has lost its tropical meaning, at least to the mass of readers, if not to the scholar. What is true of imagination is true of vast many words.

But

§ 613. One class of Rhetorical Forms are called FIGURES OF SPEECH. These are divided into Figures of Words and Figures of Thought.

Figures of Words are called Tropes, from the Greek pé, to turn. A Trope is a word turned from its original or lit eral signification to another, on account of some resemblance. Tropes are founded on the relation which one object bears to another, in virtue of which the name of the one can be substituted for the other. See Examples under Metaphor, Metonomy, Synecdoche, Catachresis, Antonomasia, Syllepsis, Metalepsis.

Figures of Thought are forms of language in which the words are used in their proper and literal signification, but in which the figure consists in the turn of thought. See Ex-amples under Apostrophe, Comparison, Climax, &c.

§ 614. The common statement concerning Figures is, 1. That they enrich language, and render it more copious. 2. That they bestow elevation and dignity upon style. 3. That they afford pleasure in presenting two objects at once, which the mind can take in without confusion.

4. That they present a clearer and more striking view of the principal object than can be expressed in simple terms. This statement is especially true of that class of figures called Tropes.

§ 615. The Rules usually given for the use of Tropes are, 1. That they be suited to the nature of the subject; that they be neither too many, nor too gay, nor too elevated. As nature and art open their abundant stores of illustration, there is no necessity for recurring to allusions that will raise in the mind disagreeable, mean, or vulgar ideas, except for the purpose of degrading the object illustrated.

2. The resemblance upon which the trope is founded should be clear and obvious, and not far fetched. Trite and common resemblances, however, should be avoided.

3. Tropical and plain language should not be jumbled together.

4. Two different tropes should not meet in the same object.