Note 12. Two prepositions in some cases come together; as, "From under the ship;"

"From before the luster of her face, White break the clouds away."

Note 13. Prepositions are elliptically construed with certain Adjectives; as, "In vain;"" in secret;" and also with certain adverbs; as, "At once." These are called adverbial phrases.

Note 14. It is a general rule that Greek, Latin, and French derivatives are followed by a preposition corresponding with that which is in composition; as, "To sympathize with;" "to expel from;" "to adapt to." To this rule there are many exceptions; as, "We submit to;" "we prefer to;" "aversion to," not aversion from.

Note 15. The following examples of the improper use of prepositions, with corrections, are from Murray's Grammar, p. 189:

"He was resolved of going to the Persian Court;"" on going," &c.

"He found the greatest difficulty of writing;" "in writing," &c.

"The English were a very different people then to what they are now;" "from what," &c.

"It is more than they thought for ;" "thought of." "The history of Peter is agreeable with the sacred texts;" "agreeable to," &c.

"He was made much on at Argos;" "much of," &c. "Neither of them shall make me swerve out of the path;" "from the path."

"The rain has

"In compliance to (with) your request." been falling of a long time;" falling a long time.

Note 16. Prepositions sometimes form compound verbs, by being joined with Intransitive verbs, and also with verbs in the passive voice; as, "She smiled at him;" "a bitter persecution was carried on.”

Note 17. In some cases the preposition is advantageously repeated; as, "In journeyings often, in perils of waters, in perils of robbers, in perils of mine own countrymen, in perils

in

by the heathen, in perils in the city, in perils on the sea, perils among false brethren, in weariness and painfulness, in watchings often, in hunger and thirst, in cold and nakedness."

THE COLLOCATION OF PREPOSITIONS.

§ 553. The General rule is, that the preposition shall precede the Substantive which it governs. To this rule there are exceptions. For though, in construction, it precedes the noun or pronoun dependent on it, yet in its position in the sentence it may be far separated from it, as in note 3, or even follow it. See § 561, 12.

CHAPTER VIII.

SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS.

$554. RULE LIII-CONJUNCTIONS Connect Propositions, sentences, and single words; as, "He is wise and she is virtuous;" "Honor your parents if you wish for happiness in life;""William and Mary are a happy pair."

Note 1. The current statement is here given from a regard to the convenience of the rule rather than from a regard to its philological accuracy. A careful analysis of the power of the Conjunction goes far toward proving that it is a part of speech serving to show the particular mode in which one sentence is connected with another sentence, while single words are connected by prepositions, and not by conjunctions. In support of this view of the office of conjunctions, which is entertained by Harris and Stoddart, Latham asserts that there are always two propositions where there is one Conjunction, and that a part of speech that merely combines two words is a Preposition. "It is very important to remember," he adds, "that many double Propositions may be expressed so compendiously as to look like one. When this takes place, and any question arises as to the construction, they must be exhibited in their fully expanded form, i. e., the second Subject, the sec

ond Predicate, and the second Copula must be supplied. This can always be done from the first proposition: He likes you better than me= =he likes you better than he likes me. The compendious expression of the second proposition is the First point of note in the syntax of conjunctions.

"$555. The Second point in the syntax of conjunctions is their great convertibility. Most conjunctions have been developed out of some other parts of speech. The conjunction than is derived from the Accusative singular of the Demonstrative Pronoun. The conjunction that is derived from a Demonstrative Pronoun. The conjunction therefore is a Demonstrative Pronoun+a Preposition. The conjunction because is a Substantive, governed by a Preposition.

"One and the same word, in one and the same sentence, may be a Conjunction or Preposition, as the case may be: All fled but John. If this mean all fled except John, the word but is a preposition, the word John is an Accusative Case, and the proposition is single. If, instead of John, we had a Personal Pronoun, we should say all fled but him. All fled but John. If this mean all fled, but John did not fly, the word but is a conjunction, the word John is a Nominative Case, and the propositions are two in number. If, instead of John, we had a personal pronoun, we should say all fled but he. From the fact of the great convertibility of conjunctions, it is often necessary to determine whether a word be a conjunction or not. If it be a conjunction, it can not govern a case. If it govern a case, it is no conjunc tion, but a Preposition. A conjunction can not govern a case for the following reason: the word that follows it must be the subject of the second proposition, and, as such, a Nominative case.

"§ 556. The Third point to determine in the syntax of conjunctions is the certainty or uncertainty in the mind of the speaker as to the facts expressed by the propositions which they serve to connect.

"1. Each proposition may contain a certain definite absolute fact: The day is clear, because the sun shines. Here there is neither doubt nor contingency of either the day being clear or the sun shining.

2. Of two propositions, one may be the condition of the other: The day will be clear if the sun shine. Here, although it is certain that if the sun shine the day will be clear, there is no certainty of the sun shining. Of the two propositions, one only embodies a certain fact, and that is certain only conditionally. Now an action wherein there enters any notion of uncertainty or indefinitude, and is at the same time connected with another action, is expressed, not by the Indicative Mode, but by the Subjunctive. If the sun shine (not shines) the day will be clear.

"Simple uncertainty will not constitute a subjunctive Construction: I am, perhaps, in the wrong.. Neither will simple Connection: I am wrong, because you are right. But the two combined constitute the construction in question: If I be wrong, you are right.

"Now a Conjunction that connects two Certain propositions may be said to govern an Indicative Mode; and a Conjunction that connects an Uncertain proposition with a certain one may be said to govern a Subjunctive Mode."

In opposition to the view presented in the first part of the above extract from Latham, Crombie asserts that conjunctions couple words as well as sentences; as, "A man of wisdom and virtue is a perfect character." Here it is not implied that a man of wisdom is a perfect character, but a man of wisdom combined with virtue is a perfect character. "John and Mary are a handsome couple." Is John a couple? is Mary a couple? In reply, it is said that John is handsome and Mary is handsome. Here we have essentially two propositions connected together by and.

$557. Conditional Conjunctions are of two sorts:

1. Those which express a condition as an actual fact, and one admitted by the speaker.

2. Those which express a condition as a possible fact, and one which the speaker does not admit, or admits only in a qualified manner.

Since the children are so badly brought up, they are not to be trusted. This is an instance of the first Construction. The speaker admits, as an absolute fact, the bad bringing up of the children. If the children be so badly brought

up, they are not to be trusted. This is an instance of the second Construction. The speaker admits, as a possible (perhaps, as a probable) fact, the bad bringing up of the chil dren, but he does not adopt it as an indubitable one.

§ 558. Now if every conjunction had a fixed invariable meaning, there would be no difficulty in determining whether a condition was absolute, and beyond a doubt; or possible, and liable to a doubt. But such is not the case. Although may precede a proposition which is admitted as well as one that is doubted. a. Although the children are, &c. b. Although the children be. If, too, may precede propositions wherein there is no doubt whatever implied; in other words, it may be used as well as since. What applies to if applies to other Conjunctions as well.

§ 559. As a point of practice, the following method of determining the amount of doubt expressed in a conditional proposition is useful. Insert immediately after the conjunction one of the two following phrases: 1. As is the case. 2. As may or may not be the case. By ascertaining which of these two supplements expresses the meaning of the speaker, we ascertain the Mode of the verb which follows. When the first formula is the one required, there is no element of doubt, and the verb should be in the Indicative Mode. If case) he is gone, I must follow him. When the second formula is the one required, there is an element of doubt, and the verb should be in the Subjunctive Mode. If (as may or may not be the case) he be gone, I must follow him. See Rule on the subjunctive.

is the

Note 2. The use of the word that in expressions like I eat, that I may live, &c., is a modification of the subjunctive construction that is conveniently called potential. It denotes that one act is done for the sake of supplying the power or opportunity for the performance of another. In English, the word that, so used, can not be said to govern a mode, though generally followed by either may or might. It should rather be said to require a certain combination to follow it. The most important point of the construction in question is the so-called SUCCESSION OF TENSES.

Whenever the Conjunction that expresses intention, and