things in which they agree with one another. The word means a drawing-away of their marks of agreement from all the distinctive marks which the single objects have; e. g., we may abstract from all the houses which come in our way certain points of agreement (as that they are covered buildings, and fit for the habitation of men), and fix the attention upon these without regard to the points of difference (namely, the height, length, position, convenience, decoration). We can not "Generalize" without "abstracting," but we may perform Abstraction without Generalization.

GENERALIZATION is the act of Comprehending, under a Common name, several objects agreeing in some point which we abstract from each of them, and which that common name serves to indicate. A General name is one which is capable of being truly affirmed in the same sense of each of an indefinite number of things. An Individual or a Singu lar name is a name which is only capable of being truly af firmed in the same sense of one thing. When we refer two or more individuals to a species, or two or more species to a common Genus, we are said to Generalize. The process of generalization and abstraction are employed in arriving at the logical distinctions of Genus and Species.

EXERCISE I.

1. Abstract some quality from the other qualities in a field of Grass, and give a name to it.

2. Abstract from the character of Bonaparte certain quali ties which fitted him to be a Tyrant, or certain qualities that fitted him to be a Warrior.

Greenness

Green or brave indicates a certain quality in concreto, which we can abstract from the other qualities. or bravery is a quality in abstracto. While in concreto it is a predicate, when in abstracto it is a subject.

DIVISION.

§ 381. Logical DIVISION is a metaphorical expression to signify the distinct (i. e., separate) enumeration of several things signified by a common name. This is the exact opposite of Generalization. It consists in the distribution of a Genus into its several species. For as in that you lay aside the differences by which several things are distinguished, so as to call them all by one common name, so in Division you add on the differences, so as to enumerate them by their several particular names. Thus, "Mineral" is said to be divided into stones, metals, &c., and metals again into gold, iron, &c. These are called PARTS (or Members) of the division. Logical Division is different from Physical Division. What is true of a "logical whole" is true of each of its parts. What is true of a "physical whole" is not true of its parts. Logically, "tree" is divided into oak, elms, pine, &c. Physically, "tree" is divided into root, trunk, branches, &c. There be two or more logical divisions of the same may Genus. Thus, "Book" may be divided according to the size; as, Quarto, octavo, &c.; or according to its matter; as, Poetical, historical, &c.; or according to its language; as, Latin, French, &c. The principle of the division must be adhered to from the first to the last. To begin with one principle and to introduce another, thus intermixing them, is to make a CROSS DIVISION.

Three rules are to be observed in correct division: 1. The constituent species, or members, must exclude one another. 2. The constituent species must be equal, together, to the Genus divided. 3. The division must be made according to one principle, that cross division may be avoided.

EXAMPLES.

§ 382. Goodness of Memory may be divided into Susceptibility, retentiveness, readiness.-Dugald Stewart.

Happiness consists in, 1. The exercise of the social affections. 2. The exercise of our faculties in some engaging end. 3. The prudent constitution of the habits.

-Paley.

4. Health.

EXERCISES.

Distinguish by the proper conjunctions, viz., either and or, the cross divisions in the following enumerations: 1. Men are, Merchants, farmers, lawyers, negroes, whites, Pagans, Christians.

2. Substantives are, Masculine, feminine, proper, common.

DEFINITION.

§383. Logical DEFINITION always consists of the Genus and Differentia. The former serves to mark the points in which it agrees with others of the same kind, the latter those in which it differs from them. A plant would be defined physically by enumerating the leaves, stalks, roots, &c. Logically, it would be defined an organized Being, destitute of sensation; the former of these expressions denoting the Genus, the latter the Difference, which are the parts of which Logic considers every species as consisting, and which are evidently separable by the mind alone. Thus, if Logic were defined to be the Art of Reasoning, we should explain this definition to consist in the statement of its "Genus" as "an Art," and of its "difference" as the art of "Reasoning." A proper name is incapable of a logical definition.

EXERCISE I.

Analyze into their respective "Genera" and "differences" the following definition of terms:

1. A meadow is a field devoted to pasturage.
2. A pension is an allowance for past services.
3. Rhetoric is the art of speaking persuasively.
4. Bigotry is exclusive attachment to party.

EXERCISE II.

Define, by "Genus" and "difference," the following terms:

.

CHAPTER III.

THE PROPOSITION..

§ 384. A PROPOSITION is a sentence in which something is affirmed or denied of something. A proposition defined logically is a "Sentence assertive," i. e., affirming or denying, "Sentence" being the Genus, and "assertive" the difference. This definition expresses the whole essence, and it relates entirely to the words of a proposition.

In a proposition there are two somethings, the something spoken about and the something said concerning it. Thus, in the proposition Gold is yellow, the quality, property, or attribute expressed by the word yellow is affirmed of the substance gold, so that yellow is one part of the proposition, and gold another.

Again, in the proposition ice is not hot, the property, quality, or attribute expressed by the word hot is denied of ice. Ice, therefore, is one part of the proposition, and hot another.

But to say Gold-yellow, is to employ words to no purpose. The combination conveys no meaning. There are only two separate somethings. The expression is imperfect. It needs a bond to connect them together.

Hence every proposition consists of three parts:

I. The SUBJECT. The something concerning which we make a statement, whether in the way of affirmation or denial, is called the Subject. In the example above, gold, ice, are subjects, and we can assert of them that they are yellow or hot, or else that they are not so, i. e., that they are not yellow, not hot. In the first case, the proposition is Affirmative; in the second, Negative.

II. The PREDICATE. The something which we connect with the subject is the Predicate: Yellow, hot, are predicates. They are asserted or predicated of the subjects, Gold, ice.

III. The COPULA. That part of a proposition which con

Place be

nects the subject and predicate is called the Copula. It is
the word which serves as a sign to denote the existence of
either an affirmation or a denial. Man-mortal: Each of
these words now stand isolated from the other.
tween them the magical word is, and the twain become one
proposition. In this case the copula is affirmative. In the
proposition man is not mortal, the copula is negative.

EXERCISE

Form propositions by supplying the parts that are wanting in the following pairs: 1. The Copula to the subject and predicate, Summer-pleasant; Autumn-sober; Winter— sighing; Spring-a season. 2. The Predicate to the Subject and Copula. The air is; The sky is; The snow was; The storm was. 3. The Subject to the copula and predicate: is brave; was a hero; -is honorable; -was a coward.

THE PARTS OF A PROPOSITION NOT MORE THAN

THREE.

§ 385. In the proposition, the sun (is) shining, we have a Simple proposition. We readily see that there are but three parts. But it must be evident to every one, who reflects upon either what he hears or reads, that propositions are in reality much less simple than they have been described as being. If propositions are so short, how is it that sentences are so long? If subjects and predicates are so simple, how became periods so complex?

The fact is, that both subjects and predicates may be made complex, by the addition of subordinate parts. A term may consist of several words:

The sun (is) shining.

The early sun (is) brightly shining.

The early sun with glad beams, (is) brightly shining through the air.

The early sun with glad beams having awakened the trav eler, (is) brightly shining through the air, upon his path. Terms like those of the last three examples are called Mixed terms. The objects which they express are called