All genitives and plurals of Latin nouns; as, Muse's, muses; choir's, choirs; hero's, heroes; tribe's, tribes; face's, faces.

All comparatives in er and superlatives in est of Latin adjectives; as, Firmer, firmest; grander, grandest.

All participles in ing and ed from Latin verbs; as, Ceding, ceded.

All past tenses in ed and inflected persons of Latin verbs; as, Ceded, cedest, cedes, cededst.

(2.) Latin or foreign words with Teutonic suffixes, to wit: Verbs in en from adjectives of Latin origin; as, Chasten from chaste.

Adjectives in some from substantives and verbs of Latin origin; as, Humorsome, tendsome.

Adjectives in ful from substantives of Latin origin; as, Ireful, fateful, artful, useful, merciful, bountiful.

Adjectives in less from Latin substantives; as, Causeless, nerveless, artless, useless, motionless, merciless.

Substantives in er of the active subject from many Latin verbs; as, Tender, "one that tends ;" vexer, seducer, subscriber, visiter.

Verbal substantives in ing from many Latin verbs; as, Tending, vexing, visiting.

Abstract substantives in hood from adjectives and attributives of Latin origin; as, Falsehood, priesthood.

Abstract substantives in dom from attributives of Latin origin; as, Martyrdom, dukedom, peerdom, popedom, princedom, Christendom.

Abstract substantives in ship from attributives of Latin origin; as, Rectorship, survivorship, vicarship, rivalship, suretiship.

Abstract substantives in ness, denoting the quality, from Latin stem-adjectives; as, Chasteness, clearness, crudeness, firmness, rudeness; also, from participial adjectives of Latin origin; as, Aptness, closeness, strictness, politeness, fixedness; also, from derivative adjectives in able, acious, al, aneous, ant, ent, ible, ic, ical, id, ile, ive, ous, uous, und; as, Durableness, voraciousness, fatalness, spontaneousness, valiantness, presentness, sensibleness, publicness, sphericalness, viv

idness, servileness, passiveness, pompousness, superfluousness, roundness.

Adverbs in ly formed from the same adjectives as above; as, Chastely, clearly, crudely, firmly, rudely, aptly, closely, strictly, politely, fixedly, durably, voraciously, spontaneously, valiantly, presently, sensibly, publicly, spherically, viv idly, servilely, passively, pompously, superfluously, roundly.

(3.) Latin or foreign words with Teutonic prefixes; as, Misform, misuse, misdate, misjoin, misjudge, uncertain, unchaste, undetermined, unlawful, unceasing.

2. Malformations and hybrid words.

It is contrary to the genius of the English language to add Latin suffixes to Teutonie words, or to compound a Lat in or Greek with a Teutonic word; but we have examples of both :

(1.) Teutonic words with Latin suffixes; as, Eatable, drinkable, goddess, shepherdess, murderess, huntress, songstress; blustrous, burdenous, murderous, wondrous, which are approved; and fishify, happify, mistify, which are disapproved.

(2.) Hybrid words, Latin or Greek and English; as, Mobocracy, popalatry, slavocracy, which are disapproved.

It is also contrary to the genius of the Latin language to add Greek suffixes or prefixes to Latin words, or to com. pound a Greek with a Latin word; but we have examples

of both:

(3.) Latin words with Greek suffixes or prefixes; as, Authorize, mineralize, realize, antacid, anti-social, which are approved.

(4.) Hybrid words, Greek and Latin; as, Bigamy, mineralogy, monoculous, which are approved; and omnigraph, omnigraphic, which are disapproved.

DEVELOPMENT OF

THE ANGLO-SAXON PORTION OF
THE LANGUAGE.

§ 335. The consideration of the natural development of language adds much to its right appreciation.

The natural development of the Anglo-Saxon portion of our language has been nearly as follows:

I. Natural or instinctive formations, the first or lowest step in language.

1. Interjections and imitations of natural sounds; as, Ah, Oh; mew, peep. See Chap. XXVII.

2. Pronominal elements (as, Ic, m, w, th, y, h, th demonstrative, s, wh), and words formed from them. See 336. II. Logical formations, the full step in language, as pròceeding from the intellectual principle.

1. Roots, originally denoting physical action or motion, and including,

(1.) Stem-verbs of the old or strong conjugation; as, Swim,

swam, swum.

(2.) Stem-verbs of the new or weak conjugation; as, Kill, killed, killed.

(3.) Stem-verbs of the mixed conjugation; as, Bring, brought, brought.

2. Stems, to be referred in each case to a verbal root, whether such root actually exists or not, and formed sometimes with and sometimes without an internal change of vowel, including,

(1.) Stem-adjectives; as, Blank from to blink, blind from to blend, wrong from to wring, much, long, fat; developed for the most part in antithetic pairs; as, Great and small, high and low, thick and thin.

(2.) Stem-substantives; as, Band from to bind, cake from to cook, doom from to deem, arm, heart, door.

3. Reduplicate forms; as, Chit-chat from chat, sing-song from song, see-saw from to saw.

4. Primary derivatives, i. e., derivatives immediately from the stem, including,

(1.) Derivative verbs; as, Chatter, a frequentative from to chat; crackle, a diminutive from to crack; harden, a factitive from hard.

(2.) Derivative adjectives; as, Toilsome from to toil, tiresome from to tire, whitish from white, winged from wing, golden from gold, northern from north, fearful from fear, fearless from fear, manly from man, muddy from mud, backward from back.

(3.) Derivative adverbs; as, Wisely from wise, backward

from back; also, some adverbs which have lost their AngloSaxon termination; as, Fast, high, hard, loud, long, late, right, sore, thick, wide, evil or ill. See § 319.

(4.) Derivative concrete substantives; as, Baker from to bake, punster from to pun, hireling from to hire, dullard an ampliative from dull, lambkin a diminutive from lamb, hillock a diminutive from hill.

(5.) Derivative abstract substantives; as, Binding from to bind, strength from strong, height from high, freedom from free, goodness from good, manhood from man, Godhead from God, sonship from son.

5. Secondary derivatives, i. e., derivatives from other de rivatives; as, Fearfully, fearfulness, fearlessly, fearlessness, tiredness, learnedly, waywardness, westwardly, tiresomeness.

6. Words with prefixes; as, Arise from rise, abed for on bed, befall, by-gone, forbid, foretell, income, mistake, offset, onset, outgo, overcome, undo, underbid, upstart, withstand. See § 345.

7. Compound words, including,

(1.) Imperfect compounds; as, God-man, deaf-mute, fourteen, hap-hazard.

(2.) Perfect compounds; as, Foeman, snow-white, rats'

bane.

(3.) Inverted compounds; as, Wagtail, pickpurse, breakfast. See § 361.

8. Words formed by internal or external inflection:
(1.) To express gender:

Masculine substantives in er; as, Widower; and in ard; as, Wizard.

Feminine substantives in ster; as, Spinster; in ine; as, Landgravine; and in ess; as, Goddess.

(2.) To express number:

Plural substantives in en; as, Oxen from ox; formed by internal inflection; as, Mice from mouse; and in s; as, Hands from hand.

(3.) To express case:

Genitives singular in 's; as, Church's, righteousness'.
Genitives plural in 's; as, Men's, women's.

(4.) To express comparison in adjectives and adverbs:

Comparatives in er, and superlatives in est; as, Hard, harder, hardest; soon, sooner, soonest.

(5.) To express forms and tenses in verbs:

Past tenses and past participles after the old or strong conjugation; as, Swim, swam, swum; after the weak conjugation; as, Kill, killed, killed; and after the mixed conjugation; as, Bring, brought, brought.

Present participles in ing; as, Swimming, killing, bringing.

(6.) To express persons in verbs:

Third persons of the present tense in eth or s; as, Killeth or kills.

Second persons in est of the present tense; as, Killest; and of the past tense; as, Killedst.

The foreign element of the English language comes not here into consideration.

PRONOMINAL ELEMENTS.

§ 336. If we take a general etymological survey of pronouns and pronominal words, they will be found to arrange themselves not under verbal roots, like other parts of speech, but under certain elementary sounds or syllables.

1. Ic, the element of the first person singular subject, appears now only in the mutilated form I. Compare AngloSaxon ic, Old English ic.

2. M, the element of the first person singular object, appears in me, my, mine.

3. W, the element of the first person plural, appears in

we, our, ours, us.

4. Th, the element of the second person singular, intermediate between Latin t and German d, appears in thou, thy, thine, thee. Perhaps radically connected with th, the de

monstrative element mentioned below.

5. Y, the element of the second person plural, appears in

ye, your, yours, you.

6. H, the element of the third person and of the nearer demonstrative, appears in he, his, him, her (genitive and accusative), it (Anglo-Saxon hit), its, hence, here, hither.

7. Th, the element of the more remote demonstrative, ap