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five a Compound Adjective, and are satisfied with having the mark of its class being put on to the end. When units are combined with tens, they are placed either, first, with "and," or, last, without "and" (twenty-four, or four-and-twenty); but after a hundred the smaller number is always last; as, a hundred and twenty-four.

§ 195. To express number distributively, namely, in par ties of so many together, the cardinal number is repeated; as, Two and two, three and three. "And he called the twelve, and began to send them two and two."-Mark, vi., 7, Tyndale's translation. "We are not to stay altogether, but to come by him, where he stands, by ones, by twos, and by threes."-Shakspeare. Here there are plural forms.

"The sun has long been set,

The stars are out by twos and threes;

The little birds are piping yet

Among the bushes and trees."-WORDSWORTH.

§ 196. Numerals are usually classed with Adjectives, and called Numeral Adjectives. Like Pronouns, they can be divided, according to their signification and form, into Substantive, Adjective, and Adverbial Numerals; as, A hundred; ten men; tenthly.

In addition to the Definite Numerals mentioned above, there is still another class, usually reckoned among pronominal Adjectives, which may be called Indefinite Numerals, since they do not, like the others, express a definite number or quantity; as, Some, all, many, few, much, little, more, less, several, whole, enough, other, another, only, alone, any, none, aught, naught, something, nothing, somewhat, &c.

CHAPTER V.

THE ARTICLES.

§197. Ir is a question whether the words An and THE should be regarded as a distinct part of speech, called the Article, or should be classed with Adjectives. An is very closely related in origin and power to the word one, a numeral Adjec

tive. The, both in its original and its present power, closely related to the word that, a pronominal Adjective.

is

RELATION OF THE ARTICLES TO THE PROPOSITION.

§ 198. Still, though they agree severally with one and that, they also differ from them. They can not, either of them, like one and that, form the predicate of a proposition. Nor can either of them stand by itself as the subject of a proposition. The can enter into a proposition only as the sign of Definitude; as, The man is mortal. An or a can enter into a proposition only as a sign of Indefinitude; as, A man is mortal. The Article can be only a Secondary part of speech. The word is from the Latin articulus = a joint.

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§199. 1. The Article AN is the Anglo-Saxon a'n, the Scotch ane, the Latin unus, and the Numeral one. But though it is the same in derivation as the numeral one, it differs from it in meaning. A man is more indefinite than one man. word an can not be used by itself; the word one can.

The

2. In the Anglo-Saxon, an was used before consonantal sounds as well as vowels; but in the English language the n is omitted before the former, and retained before the latter; as, A man; an eagle; a heart; an hour; a union; a The last two words commence with consonantal sounds, the first with that of y, and the second with that of In the word hour the h is silent.

oneness.

w.

3. The words an and a are identical, the change from an to a before a consonantal sound having been made by a euphonic process. It is used when we speak of some single object without defining it. For this reason, in comparison with the, it is called the Indefinite Article. It is definite only with respect to number. It can occur only when conjoined with other words; as, A man; a woman. Like the Adjective, it is the same for all genders and cases.

THE ARTICLE "THE."

§ 200. 1. The word THE is called the Definite Article, because it specifies or defines the Substantive with which it is

conjoined; as, The man; the woman. By these expressions some particular man or woman is signified. It is the same for all genders, and cases, and numbers.

2. The Definite Article the has arisen out of the Demonstrative Pronoun þæt, or, at least, out of a common root; just as an and a has arisen out of the numeral one. In the Anglo-Saxon there was a form, þe, undeclined, and common to all the cases of all the numbers. As an or a is less definite than one, so is the less definite than that. Were we for the to substitute that, and to say "that man with that long beard," the phrase would more particularly imply real pres ence, and, indirectly, a sort of contrast with this man with this long beard. An and one, the and that, express different degrees of definitude.

In the former
In the Latin,

ABSENCE OF ARTICLES FROM CERTAIN LANGUAGES. §201. In Greek there is no Indefinite, in Latin there is neither an Indefinite nor a Definite Article. language they say avηp Tiça certain man. the words filius regis mean equally the son of the king, a son of a king, a son of the king, or the son of a king. In Maso-Gothic and in Old Norse there is an equal absence of the Indefinite Article. In these the Greek is expressed by the Gothic root sum.

Now, as it is very evident that, as far as sense is concerned, the words some man, a certain man, and a man are, there or thereabout, the same, an exception may be taken to the statement that in Greek and Moso-Gothic there is no Indefinite Article. It may, in the present state of the argument, be fairly said that the words sum and Ts are pronouns with a certain sense, and that a and an are no more; and, consequently, that in Greek the Indefinite Article is T, in Maso-Gothic sum, and in English a or an. A distinction, however, is to be made. In the expression ävηp Tɩç—a certain man, or a man, and in the expression sum mann, the words sum and Tis preserve their natural and original meaning, while in a man, or an ox, a and an are used in a secondary sense. A principal office of the articles is to reduce a noun substan tive from a general to a particular signification.

THE ORIGIN OF ARTICLES.

= one.

The

§ 202. The origin of Articles seems to be uniform. German ein, the Danish en, stand to one in the same relation in which an does. The French un, Italian and Spanish uno, are similarly related to unus = And as in English the, in German der, in Danish den, come from the Demonstrative pronouns, so in the Romanic languages are the French le, the Italian il and lo, and the Spanish el, derived from the Latin Demonstrative ille.

In no language, in its oldest stage, is there ever a word giving, in its primary sense, the ideas of a and the. As tongues become modern, some word with a similar sense is used to express them. In the course of time a change of form takes place corresponding to the change of meaning, e. g., one becomes an, and afterward a. Then it is that Articles become looked upon as separate parts of speech. No invalidation of this statement is drawn from the Greek language. Although the Etymology gives us ó, ý, tó, ho, he, to, as the Definite Article, the Syntax informs us that in the oldest stage of the language (ho)=the, had the power of ovros (howtos)

=this.

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§ 203. There is a the which originated from the AngloSaxon by, that, and is different from the the which originated from the Anglo-Saxon pe. The latter is the common article. The former is the the in expressions like all the more, all the better more by all that, better by all that, and the Latin phrases eo majus, eo melius.”—LATHAM.

CHAPTER VI.

THE PRONOUN.

§ 204. A PRONOUN is a word which can be used instead of a Noun, either as the Subject or the Predicate of a proposition; as, "The man is happy; he is benevolent."

Here he

is used instead of man as the subject of the proposition. "I am he." Here he is used as the predicate of the proposition. 1. The term pronoun is derived from the Latin word pronomen, which signifies for a noun. Pronouns have been called Substitutes, inasmuch as some of them stand not only for nouns, but also for adjectives, for a sentence or part of a sentence, or a series of propositions. They are Relational words. They do not, like substantives, express the idea of an object, but only the relation of an object to the speaker, since they show whether the object is the speaker himself (the first person) or the person or thing addressed (the second person), or the person or thing spoken of (the third person); e. g., I (the teacher) give to you (the scholar) it (the book).

more.

2. It has been said that pronouns are employed to prevent the tiresome repetition of names. But they do something For, as there is hardly any name peculiar to one individual, the employment of a name belonging to more persons than one would not so clearly specify the object as the appropriate pronoun; nor would it have that simplicity and energy which accompany the pronoun. pronoun. If, instead of saying "I am the God," Moses had said, "The Lord is the God," or, instead of saying "Thou art the man," Nathan had said, "David is the man," the energy of the expression would have been destroyed.

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3. "They are strange and mighty words, these two little pronouns I and Thou, the mightiest, perhaps, in the whole compass of language. The word pronoun is not quite strictly appropriate to them; for, as the great master of the philosophy of language, William Humboldt, observes, They are not the mere substitutes of the names of the persons for whom they stand, but involve the personality of the speaker and of the person spoken to, and the relation between them.' I is the word which man has in common with God, the Eternal Selfexisting I AM. Thou is the word with which God and his Conscience speak to man, the word with which man speaks and communes with God and his neighbor. All other words without these two would belong to things. I and thou are inseparable from personality, and bestow personality on what soever they are applied to. They are the two primary ele

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