ment, when the object is at a high elevation, we can view celestial phenomena with the same ease as if we were sitting at a writing desk reading a book. With a magnifying power of about 40 or 50 times applied to this telescope, terrestrial ob1ects appear extremely oright and well defined. A speculum of 49 inches focal distance, and 6 inches diameter, has lately been fitted up on the same principle. With magnifying powers of from 100 to 160 times, it exhibits distinct and interesting views of the moon's surface, and of the ring of Saturn, and with a power of 56 times it affords a beautiful view of land objects. The specula used in these instruments are far from being good; being of a yellowish colour, and scarcely half polished, and having large holes in the centre; as they were originally intended for Gregorian reflectors; yet the brightness of vision approaches nearly to that of achromatic telescopes. The experiments which have been made on this subject demonstrate, that a tube is not necessary for a reflecting telescope, when viewing either celestial or terrestrial objects; and, therefore, this construction of the instrument may be denominated, The Aerial Reflector. The The Aerial Reflector. The simplicity of the construction, and the excellence of the performance of these instruments, have been much admired by several scientific gentle men to whom they have been exhibited. A caveat has lately been lodged at the Patent Of fice, in the view of taking out a patent for this construction of reflecting telescopes; and a more detailed account of it will probably soon appear in some of the scientific journals. In the system of Optics, lately published in the Edinburgh Encyclopædia, (one of the most luminous and comprehensive treatises which has yet appeared on this subject,) the writer, in his introduction to the account of Dr. Brewster's improvement on the Newtonian telescope, remarks" If we could dispense with the use of the small specula in telescopes of moderate length, by inclining the great speculum, and using an oblique, and, consequently, a distorted reflection, as proposed first by La Maire, we should consider the Newtonian telescope as perfect; and on a large scale, or when the instrument exceeds 20 feet, it has undoubtedly this character, as nothing can be more simple than to magnify, by a single eyeglass, the image formed by a single speculum. -As the front view is quite impracticable, and, indeed, has never been attempted in instruments of a small size, it becomes of great practical consequence to remove as much as possible the evils which arise from the use of a small speculum," &c.-The instruments noticed above have effectuated the desirable object alluded to by this respectable writer; and the principle of the construction is neither that of Dr. Herschel's front view, nor does it coincide with that proposed by La Maire, which seems to have been a mere nint, which was never put intc executior. } No. IX. p. 256.-On Steam Navigation. The application of steam, as a mechanica! power for impelling vessels along rivers and seas, is one of the most brilliant and useful achievoments of art which distinguish the present age and seems destined to produce an important and interesting change in the general intercourse of nations. From the "Report of a Committee of Parliament," published in 1822, it appears, that the first application of steam to the impelling of vessels was made by an Englishman, of the name of Hull, who, in 1736, obtained a patent for the invention of a steam-boat, to be moved with a crank and paddles. But it was only in 1807, that the invention was fairly brought into practical use, by Mr. Fulton, an American, who had the assistance and advice of Mr. Bell, a Scots engineer. There are now, according to Mr. Perkins' statement, about 300 steamboats on the rivers, bays, and coasts of the United States, varying in their size from 100 to 700 tons. In Britain, the first successful application of steam to vessels was made by the above-mentioned Mr. Bell,* who built the Comet of 25 tons, and four horses' power, to ply on the Clyde. There are now reckoned about 150 steam-boats, from 40 to 500 tons, plying on the rivers and coasts of the British isles. Glasgow, which had the honour of introducing steam navigation on this side of the Atlantic, is still the seat of its greatest activity. According to a statement given in the "Edinburgh Philosophical Journal," published in July, 1822, there were then no less than 36 steamboats, of various sizes, plying on the Clyde. Some of these, besides performing regular voyages to Inverary, Campbelton, Belfast, Liverpool, and other places, are also performing tours, during the summer months, to the Giant's Causeway, Staffa, Skye, and other ports of the Western isles, and to Inverness by the Caledonian canal. Steam-boats are also plying between Aberdeen and Leith-between Newhaven and Aberdour, Bruntisland, Kinghorn, Kirkaldy, and Dysart; and to Queensferry, Alloa, Grangemouth, and Sterling-between Leith and London-Dover and Calais. has been plying for several years on LochLomond, which enables the traveller, at a small expense, to take an interesting view of the diversified scenery of that beautiful lake. Five are just now plying on the Tay; two of which, with engines of 30 and 40 horse powers, and fitted up with elegant accommodations ply daily between Perth and Dundee; each of them, du ing It is much to be regretted, and it is certainly not congenial to the liberal spirit of the age, that this steam navigation, and who has done so much to gentleman, who was among the first inventors of promote its success in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, has never received any public reward for his exertions, and has been left to sink into a state ap proaching to poverty. One most of the summer months, transporting nearly of surface should be immersed in the water for a hundred passengers at every trip. each horse power. The paddle wheels varv from 10 to 15 feet in diameter, dip from 12 to 26 inches in the water, and have about one foot in breadth for each 10 horse power. Mr. Gladstone affirms, that so much power is wasted in displacing the water by the stroke of the board, that the velocity of the ship is only about one-half of that of the outer surface of the paddle-wheel. "There are two sources of apprehension in steam-boats-fire, and the bursting of the boiler. With regard to the latter, when the boiler is of low pressure, it is satisfactorily established that not the smallest danger exists. And in the bes‘ constructed vessels, the danger from fire is completely obviated, by separating the furnace from the sides of the vessels by five inches of water." Steam navigation, though less understood on he Continent than with us, is now beginning to make considerable progress. There are 8 steam-boats on the Garonne, and several on the Seine. There are two on the Lake of Geneva, and two are about to be established on the Lake Constance, and there are, besides, one or two on the Danube. It is likely, that in the course of a few years such conveyances will be established on all our friths and rivers, and the period is, no doubt, hastening on, when excursions will be taken, in such vehicles, between Europe and America. A steam-boat of 700 tons burden, and 100 horse power, has sailed regularly, summer and winter, for three or four years, between New-York and New-Orleans, a distance of 2000 miles, in an open sea, exposed to great storms; and, by many, she is preferred to the packets, not only for the certainty of making shorter voyages, but on account of greater safety. In America, steam vessels are fitted up with every accommodation and elegancy which art can devise; so as to produce, if possible, as great a variety of enjoyment to passengers on sea as on land. Mr. Church, the American consul in France, has invented a paddle, which revolves on the pad-riage, for conveying goods and passengers on dle wheel, by very simple mechanism, which is found to save power. In the United States, a new mode of constructing cabins has been lately introduced, so as to place them beyond the reach of injury from explosions of the boiler. A steam vessel of a large size has lately been fitted up, which is intended to sail between London and Calcutta. "Steam vessels have been built in this country of from 10 to 500 tons, and from 3 or 4 to 110 horse power. The length of the City of Edinburgh, on the upper deck, is 143 feet; and some have lately been constructed of still larger dimensions. The American steam-boats are larger than ours, and are much more used for the conveyance of merchandise. The Frontinac, which plies on the Canadian side of Lake Ontario, is 170 feet long on deck, and 32 feet broad; and the Chancellor Livingston, which plies on the Hudson, is of the same size. The velocity aimed at is generally 8 or 9 miles an hour. The proportion is, on an average, about one horse power for every four tons of burden, computed in the usual way. The velocity is found to be nearly as the square root of the power, so that an 80 horse power engine will produce only twice the velocity of one of 20 horse power. Something depends also on the make and size of the vessel. The " Sovereign," of 210 tons, and 80 horse power, goes 93 miles an hour in still water; and he "James Watt," of 448 tons. and 100 horse power, is stated to go 10 miles. For the paddleboards, the rule is, that 3-10ths of a square foot The power of steam is now rendered subservient to the breaking of stones for the construction of roads. The stones are put into a kind of hopper above, and pushed down with a rake, and the machine is worked by a rotatory motion: of one horse power; and will break a ton of hard pebbles completely, in from six to eight minutes. A steam machine has also been invented for the dressing of woollen cloth, which does as much work in 50 minutes as two men could do in two days. Mon. Mag. Aug. 1823, p. 71.-A steam car land, was lately constructing by Mr. Griffiths. Its rate of motion, on common roads, is estimated at five miles an hour, at an average; about three miles when going up hill, and above seven when running down. But pecuniary embarrassments, or other impediments, have, hitherto, prevented the completion of his design. Mr. Perkins has lately made improvements on the steam engine, which promise to carry its powers to a high degree of perfection. The engine he has lately constructed is calculated to a ten horse power, though the cylinder is no more than two inches in diameter, and 18 inches long, with a stroke of only 12 inches. Although the space occupied by the engine is not more than six feet by eight, yet Mr. P. considers the apparatus (with the exception of the working cylinder and piston) as perfectly sufficient for a thirty horse engine. When the engine performs full work, it consumes only two bushels of coal in the day. Mr. Perkins has also announced a discovery still more extraordinary, viz. that he has been able to arrest the heat, after it has performed its mechanical functions, and actually pump it back to the generator, to unite with a fresh portion of water, and renew its useful labours." A particular account of Perkins's engine accompanied with an engraving, is given in the Edin. Philos. Journal, No. 17, for July 1823. The pretensions of Mr. Perkins, however, have not yet been so fully substantiated by experimen: as to satisfy the anxious expec.ation of the public, inch An interesting report has lately been published of a series of experiments, made with a new steam engine, invented by an American machinist, called the capillary steam engine. Three great objects are said to be accomplished by this invention, lightness, safety, and economy of fuel. In an engine calculated for a four horse power, tue generator is formed of a copper tube in diameter, and 100 feet long, which weighs about 16lbs. It is arranged in coils, one above another, in the form of a sugar loaf, 30 inches high; the bottom coil being 18 inches in diameter, and the top one considerably less. The wood is prepared as is usual for a stove, and put within the coils. The steam cylinder is formed of sheet copper, three inches in diameter, 27 inches in stroke, and, with all its appendages, weighs about 25lbs. It has been ascertained, that the generator and main cylinder, with their contents and appendages, exclusive of fuel, need not weigh more than 20lbs. to the horse power. No harm can be done by the bursting of boilers -even a safety-valve is considered as useless. In the course of the experiments, the experimenters several times burst the tube; but, so far from doing any injury, it could not always be perceived by the spectators. To ascertain what may be done towards aerial navigation, by steam, experiments were made on the power of wings in the air, and on the power necessary to work them. The result is, that, it requires a horse power to carry 30lbs. in the air; so that a flying engine, to be worked by charcoal, would weigh about 30lbs. to the horse power, wings, condenser and fuel included. It was also ascertained by experiments and calculations, that a balloon could be made to carry a man with an engine, which would push it at the rate of 15 miles an hour in the air. A more particular detail of these experiments may be seen in the "London Mechanics' Magazine," No. 60, for 16th October, 1824. No. X. p. 146.-Strictures on a certain sentiment respecting the work of Human Redemption. The sentiment referred to in this paragraph, "That there never was, nor ever will be, through all the ages of eternity, so wonderful a display of the divine glory, as in the cross of Christ," has been reiterated a thousand times, in sermons and in systems of divinity, and is still repeated by certain preachers, as if it were an incontrovertible axiom, which ought never to be called in question; and is, no doubt, intended to magnify the divine attributes, and the work of redemption.* But it is nothing more than a • It is not important to determine how often the ser timent here expressed has been "reiterated in germons and systems of divinity." We cannot, however, believe that it has been repeated with the same frequency as the author's language seems to imply. That there are instances, in which it was designed presumptuous assumption, which has a tendency to limit the perfections of Deity, and to present a partial and distorted view of the economy of human redemption. For, in the first place, it has no foundation in Scripture. There is not a single passage from which it can be legitimately deduced. The onus probandi, on this point, rests with those who make the assertion. A gentleman, when lately conversing on this subject, brought forward the following interrogation, as a demonstrative argument in proof of the position in question: Is not redemption declared in Scripture to be the chief of all the works of God ?" but he was not a little surprised, when he was informed that the passage, which he had partly misquoted, is applied to the behemoth or the elephant, as stated in Job xl. 19.-2dly, the assertion is as presumptuous as it is unfounded. It takes for granted, that we know all the events which have already happened, and which are now taking place throughout the whole range of God's universal empire. This empire appears unbounded; and that portion of it which we can minutely explore, is but as a point in comparison to express all the meaning here attributed to it, can. not be denied. But why may it not have been some times used to distinguish the work of mediation from all the other favours which God has conferred on our race? In his History of Redemption, p. 342, President Edwards says, "From what has been said, one may argue, that the work of redemption is the great est of all God's works, of which we have any notice, and it is the end of all his other works." This view of the subject accords with the scriptures. Though it cannot be asserted, that in a single instance they directly affirm the work of redemption to be the greatest of all the works of God, yet they give it such an importance and prominency, as are conceded to no other of His dispensations. In this light the apostles seem to have regarded it. Paul counted all the distinctions and honours and advantages which he had acquired among the Jews, as loss in com parison with the glory of the gospel. He went even farther. He declared that he counted all things but loss for the excellency of the knowledge of Christ Jesus his Lord. In this view of the subject there is no presumption and no limitation of the "divine perfections and operations." It has no tendency either to damp the hopes, or obscure the prospects of immortal beings. On the other hand, who, that is not presumptuous beyond endurance, will suppose, that he now understands the full extent of the love of Christ, and its bearings on all the other divine operations? Who will dare to assert, that this theme will not be suffi• cient for ever to employ the meditations and the songs of the redeemed? Has any one ascertained, that it is so limited, as to be soon exhausted? On these topics the author is happily silent; or rather he "pronounces nothing decisively;" but affirms, that were he "to hazard a conjecture," he should say, that the converse of the proposition” under consideration "is true." But for ourselves "we feel chained down to an obscure corner of God' domains," and possess no light except that which he has given us. In our present condition we dare not launch with the author into the ocean of conjecture. Guided by the revelation which God has made, we are compelled to regard the work of redemption as the greatest of all the divine works of which we have any knowledge; and we are satisfied, that the development of the relations and bearings and effects of this stupendous work will be sufficient to employ all our powers of comprehension, and ever to minister to us new and constant delight.~~ Am. Editor of the whole. But before we can, on good grounds, hazard such an assertion as that under consideration, we must have explored all the dispensations of God, through every portion of his vast dominions; and be able to form a comparison between the different displays of divine glory, made to all the different classes of intellectual beings, under the government of the Creator. And who, among the sons of Adam, can lay claim to such high qualifications for pronouncing so sweeping a decision on this point? 3dly, It sets limits to the divine perfections and operations. For although it could be proved, (which it cannot be,) that no such displays have hitherto been made to any other beings, yet who can take upon him to assert, that displays of divine perfection far more glorious and astonishing will not be exhibited during the countless ages of eternity which are yet to come? To set limits to the operations of almighty power and boundless benevolence, during the lapse of infinite duration, is not the province of any created intelligence, and far less of man, who stands so low in the scale of universal being. 4thly, It tends to damp the hopes and prospects of immortal beings, when looking forward to an interminable existence. For this sentiment leads them to conclude, that they are already acquainted with the greatest display of divine glory which can be made; and that whatever scenes of wonder may be exhibited in the future world, they must, of course, be all inferior to this, in point of extent and grandeur. fested than even to the inhabitants of our globe But whether such an event shall ever take place it would be presumption in us to determine. For the thoughts and the ways of God as far transcend ours, "as the heavens are high above the earth." It demands our highest tribute of grateful adoration, that the Almighty condescended to regard us in our low estate," and to deliver us from the moral degradation into which we had fallen; but, surely, it would be unreasonable to conclude, from this consideration, that of all the rational tribes which people the universe, man is the only favourite of the Most High, "when thousand worlds are round." Though myriads of other intelligences were to share in similar favours, it would not lessen the happiness conferred on us, nor ought it in the least to detract from our admiration of “the love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord.' There are a great many other and unvague tenable notions which are entertained and reiterated by certain commentators and divines, as indisputable axioms, which it would be of importance to the cause of religion to discard such as-that angels are pure immaterial substances that they were formed on the first day of the Mosaic creation--that the wisdom of God is no where so illustriously displayed throughout the universe as in the scheme of redemptiont-that the chief employment of the future world will be to pry into the mysteries of salvation-that sin is an infinite evil§-that the * In the Scriptures angels are called spirits. And till some evidence is offered of their materiality, we The redemption of the human race, as displayed in the Christian revelation, is a theme sufficiently grand, astonishing, and interesting, shall see no reason to abandon the opinion, that they to command the attention of all who are convinced that they belong to an apostate race of intelligences, and to excite the admiration and gratitude of all who have experienced its beneûts; and it stands in no need of such unfounded and extravagant assertions, to display its riches and glory. "Will a man speak deceitfully for God? Shall not his excellency make you afraid, and his dread fall upon you?"-We pronounce nothing decisively on this subject. We feel ourselves chained down to an obscure corner of God's dominions, to be in the very infancy of our knowledge, and withal, to be connected with a race of beings whose "understandings e darkened by reason of sin;" and are therefore unable to pronounce an infallible decision on what God will or will not do. Were we to hazard a conjecture on this subject, we would say, that the converse of the proposition under consideration is more probable than the proposition itself. We can conceive of worlds ten thousand times more populous than ours, and peopled with a higher order of intellectual beings, towards whom a similar display of benevolence and mercy, were it necessary, may be made; and, therefore, in point of the extent of its objects, we can conceive the love of God more illustriously mani . are pure spirits.—Ed. + To show that it is important to discard this sen. timent, the author ought at least to have stated some good reason for believing it to be without foundation. Until something inore decisive of this point shall be made to appear, there cannot be the least occasion to abandon the sentiment in question.— Ed. Here substantially the same reply may be made as in the preceding instance. Prove that this will not be the chief employment of heaven-Show that any thing else will, for the most part, occupy the attention of the spirits of just men made perfect in glory, and the sentiment under consideration will be readily renounced. Till then we shall claim the right to believs, and maintain, that the employment of the redeemed in glory will consist, to a great exter*, in beholding, admiring, and adoring Him, who nath loved them and died for them.-Ed. § Infinite is once used in the scriptures to qualify the term iniquity, Job xxii. 5. Is not thy wickedness great and thine iniquities infinite? But not to insist on perhaps a too literal interpretation of the term, it will be sufficient to show what it is ordina rily used to denote. Some authors, regarding only the very limited faculties and powers of human beings, deem it im. possible, that any of their deeds can be an infinite evil. Others, considering only the infinity of the Being against whom sin is committed, find no difficulty in convincing themselves, that it is an infinite evil. There is also a third class, who, taking the word of God for their guide, and learning that sin exposes men to everlasting punishment, do not hesitate to denominate that an infinite evil, which brings on its guilty victim sufferings infinite in duration. Understood in this last sense, we can feel no obligation te whole material universe was brought into existence at the same time with our earth-that the Creator ceased to create any new order of beings in the universe, after arranging the fabric of our globe that the whole system of material nature in heaven and earth will be destroyed at the period of the dissolution of our world-that our thoughts and affections should be completely detached from all created things, &c. &c.-Several ague notions of this description are founded on the false assumption, that the globe we inhabit, and the rational beings that have appeared on its surface from age to age, are the chief objects of God's superintendence and care-and that the Scriptures are the only medium through which we can view the plans and operations of the Deity-assumptions, which are contrary to reason, which are unwarranted in revelation, nay, which are directly contradicted in numerous passages of Scripture, some of which have already been referred to in the course of this volume. It would be of essential service to the cause of Christianity, that its doctrines, facts, and moral requisitions were uniformly exhibited in their native simplicity and grandeur, without being obscured and distorted by the vague and extravagant representations with which they are too frequently blended by injudicious minds. No. XI. As authority has a considerable degree of weight on some minds, I shall conclude with an extract on the subject of this volume, from that respectable and enlightened divine, Dr. Dwight, late president of Yale college :-"The works of God were by him intended to be, and are, in fact, manifestations of himself; proofs of his character, presence, and agency. In this light he requires men continually to regard them: and to refuse this regard is considered by him as grossly wicked, and highly deserving of punishment, Psalm xxviii. 5. Isa. v. 12-14. I am apprehensive, that even good men are prone to pay less attention to the works of creation and providence than piety demands, and the scriptures require. We say and hear so much concerning the insufficiency of these works to unfold the character of God, and the nature of genuine religion, that we are prone to consider them as almost uninstructive in moral things, and, in a great measure, useless to the promotion of piety. This, however, is a palpable and dangerous error. The works alone, without the aid of the scriptures, would, I acknowledge, be far less instructive than they now are, and utterly insufficient to guide us in the way of right reject it. It must, however, be admitted that it is not always used in this manner, and that it is sometimes an occasion of ambiguity.-Ed eousness. The scriptures were designed to De a comment on these works; to exple in their nas ture, and to show us the agency, purposes, wisdom, and goodness of God in their formation. Thus explained, thus illuminated, they become means of knowledge, very extensive and eminently useful. He who does not find in the various, beautiful, sublime, awful, and astonishing objects presented to us in creation and providence, irresistible and glorious reasons for admiring, adoring, loving, and praising his Creator, has not a claim to evangelical piety.”—System of Theology, vol. iii. p. 477. No. XII.-List of Popular Works on the different Sciences treated of in this volume, with occasional remarks, ELECT BOOKS ON NATURAL HISTORY. "Goldsmith's History of the Earth, and animated nature," with notes by T. Brown, Esq. published at Manchester, 6 vols. 8vo. The co pious notes appended to this edition, contain an account of the latest discoveries, and form a valuable addition to the original work-" The Gallery of Nature and Art," by Dr. Masor. Good, and others, 6 vols. 8vo.-" Spectacle de la Nature," or Nature Displayed, 7 vols. 12mo. -"Nature Displayed," by Dr. Simeon Shaw, 3 vols. 8vo. or in 6 vols. 12mo. This work, though chiefly a compilation, inbodies a great variety of interesting and popular descriptions of the most remarkable facts in the system of nature, which are illustrated with numerous engravings, both plain and coloured.-Clarke's "Hundred Wonders of the World," one vol. 12mo. and Platt's "Book of Curiosities," contam a number of interesting selections on this subject.Smellie's "Philosophy of Natural History," 2 vols. 4to. and his translation of "Buffon's Natural History."-Works entitled, "System" and "Elements" of "Natural History," are numerous; but the greatest part of them is confined to descriptions of the forms, habits, and instinct of animals. On this department of natural science, a work is just now in course of publication, by the celebrated Cuvier, entitled "The Animal Kingdom," with engravings, chiefly from the living subjects in the Museum of Natural History at Paris.-A popular and comprehensive history of the facts which have been ascertained respecting the earth, the atmosphere, the meteors, the heavens, &c. calculated for general readers, and interspersed with appropriate moral and religious reflections, is still a desideratum. The facts of natural history, next to the facts recorded in the sacred volume, are the first subjects to which the minds of the young should be directed in the course of a general education. |