struction, calculated to allure the minds of the young, is altogether incompatible with such Gothic rudeness and severity.*

VI. Children should not be long confined in School—and never longer than they are actively employed in it.-A school ought never to serve the purpose of a prison. If the junior classes are incapable of preparing their lessons by themselves, they should either be provided with some amusing toys or picture books, or be turned out to romp about in the open air, or under a covered shed in rainy weather, and called in when their lessons are to be explained.

VII. Young people should always be treated as rational creatures, and their opinions occasionally solicited as to certain points and scholastic arrangements. The reasons of the treatment they receive, and of the exercises prescribed, in so far as they are able to appreciate them, should occasionally be stated, and explained and illustrated.

VIII. Reproofs should always be tendered with the utmost calmness and mildness.When they are uttered in passion, and with looks of fury, they seldom produce any good effect, and not unfrequently excite a spirit of revenge against the reprover.

IX. One great object of education should be to fix the attention on the subjects we wish to explain and elucidate.-On the proper

exercise of the faculty of attention depenas almost all our improvement in knowledge and virtue. Even the senses are improved by the exercise of this faculty. Hence the peculiar delicacy of touch observable in the blind, and the quick-sightedness of the deaf; hence the distinct perception of distant objects acquired by sailors, and of delicate and minute objects by watchmakers and jewellers,-in all which cases the attention has been specially directed to particular objects. It was by fixing his attention on the subject, or "continually thinking about it,” that Newton, as he himself declared, discovered the laws of the planetary motions, and was enabled to unfold the true system of the world. Hence the propriety of presenting sensible objects to the view of children-of exhibiting before them interesting experiments, and of having their books adorned with lively and accurate engravings. Hence too the propriety of teaching them to notice every object within the reach of their vision, and to mark every minute change that takes in the form, colour, and situation, of the objects around them, and to give an account of what they may have seen or heard in any of their excursions: all which circumstances have a

tendency to induce a habit of attention, without which there can be no solid improvement in any department of instruction.

On these institutions I intended to offer a few particular remarks, and to suggest some arrangements by which they might be rendered more extensively useful than they have hitherto been, both in a moral and intellectual point of view, but as this volume has already swelled to a considerable size, I shall confine myself to a very few general observations.

It is now more than twenty years since I had an opportunity of suggesting the establishment of such institutions, under the designation of “Literary and Philosophical Socicties, adapted to the middling and lower ranks of the community." The details in relation to this subject, consisting of a series of five successive papers, were published in the London "Monthly Magazine" for the

* Corporal punishments have generally a hardening effect on the minds both of young and old. A blacksmith brought up his son, to whom he was very severe, to his own trade. The urchin was, nevertheless, an audacious dog. One day the old vulcan was attempting to harden a cold chisel which he had made of foreign steel, but could not Fucceed. 66 Horsewhip it, father," exclaimed the youth, "if that will not harden it, nothing will."

year 1814-more than eight years before any mechanics' institutions were organized in this country. Although these papers have seldom been referred to, in the history of mechanics' institutions, yet the author is aware that they were the means of suggesting, to certain individuals, the idea of establishing such societies; and, not above a year or two after their publication, a society was organized in the vicinity of London, on the plan and principles suggested in these papers, of which the author was elected an honorary member. Instead of inserting, in this place, the substance of these papers, as was originally intended, I shall merely give a short sketch of their contents.

In the first communication, after a few in.

+ See "Monthly Magazine," vol. xxxvii. fo April and July, 1814, pp. 219, 507, and volume xxxviii. for August and September. 1814, pp. 23, 121, and for January, 1815, p. 503. These commu. nications occupy more than 22 closely printed columns, and contain several minute details in relation to what should be the leading objects of such institutions, and the means by which they might be established.

troductory observations in reference to existing associations, and other particulars connected with the dissemination of knowledge, the following, among many other advantages, were pointed out as likely to flow from the extensive establishment of such institutions: -1. They would serve to unite and concentrate the scattered rays of genius, which might otherwise be dissipated, and enable them to act with combined vigour and energy in the discovery and the propagation of useful knowledge. 2. They would tend to promote the rapid advancement of general science; for if the labours of those societies which already exist have produced a powerful effect on the progress of science, much more might be expected were their number increased to eighty or a hundred fold. 3. They would have a tendency to produce an extensive diffusion of rational information among the general mass of society, particularly among those in the inferior walks of life, by which the narrow conceptions, superstitious notions, and vain fears, which so generally prevail, might be gradually removed, and a variety of useful hints and rational views suggested, which would tend to elevate and ennoble the mind, and promote domestic convenience and comfort. 4. They would induce a taste for intellectual pleasures and rational enjoyment, in which those hours generally spent in listlessness, foolish amusements, and the pursuits of dissipation, might be profitably employed, and, consequently, the sum of general happiness augmented. 5. If properly conducted, they could not fail of producing a benign influence on the state of morals and of general society. As vice is the natural offspring of ignorance, so true virtue can only flow from elevated and enlightened principles; and where such principles exist, their operation, in a greater or less degree, will always appear. The habits of order, punctuality, and politeness, which would prevail in such associations, would naturally be carried into the other departments of life, and produce their corresponding effects. The frequent intercourse of men of different parties and professions, associated for the purpose of promoting one common object, would gradually vanquish those mutual prejudices and jealousies which too frequently exist even in cultivated minds, and a liberal, candid, and humane spirit, would be cherished and promoted. Society would thus acquire a new polish, and wear a different aspect from what it now exhibits in the inferior ranks of life; more especially, if the means now suggested be combined with the operation of Christian principles.

The other communications illustrated the arrangements and regulations requisite in the operation of such institutions, particularly in relation to the following circumstances.

I. The Admission of Members.-In regard to this circumstance, the two following extremes should be guarded against-the indiscriminate admission of all who may wish to become members, whatever may be their literary or moral characters-and the giving an undue preference to certain individuals on account of their rank, who have not a corresponding share of common sense and literary acquirements. In a literary society, the distinctions of rank ought to be, in a great measure, if not altogether, overlooked; while, at the same time, the utmost decorum and politeness ought always to prevail. It is now high time that human characters were estimated according to their real and intrinsic worth, independent of those external and adventitious circumstances with which they may be accompanied; and it will be highly becoming in rational associations to set an example of estimating the characters of men on principles purely of a moral and intellectual nature. Although money is a useful article in all societies, yet it would be inexpedient to solicit any individuals, not otherwise qualified to become members, chiefly with a view of their contributing to the pecuniary interests of the association. Such persons would not only be a dead weight upon the society, but, by the undue influence they would have, might tend to impede its progress, and prevent its chief design from being accomplished. Besides their literary acquirements, the moral qualifications of those who desire admission ought not to be altogether overlooked. Knowledge is chiefly desirable in proportion as it is useful. If it does not lead its possessor to propriety of moral conduct, its utility, at least to him, may be much questioned. In all rational institutions, the melioration of the moral characters and dispositions of mankind ought to form as prominent an object as the illumination of their understandings.

II. The Subjects of Discussion, and the mode of conducting it.-Every subject which has a tendency to induce a habit of rational thinking, to elevate and ennoble the mind, and to present sublime and interesting objects of contemplation-every subject which tends to unfold the wise arrangements of nature, and the laws by which the economy of the universe is regulated, which displays the attributes of the Divinity, and leads the mind upwards "from Nature to Nature's God;"every subject which tends to promote the pro. gress of science, the advancement of the liberal and mechanical arts, and the moral improvement of mankind, might occasionally become topics of discussion in a society constituted on the principles to which I have alluded. These subjects would embrace the prominent parts of natural history, geography, astronomy,

In the discussion of such subjects, there are four different modes which might be occasionally adopted.-1. The first mode is that of public lectures. A lecture might be delivered once a week, or fortnight, or oftener, according to circumstances, on some interesting subject on natural history, chemistry, or experimental philosophy, accompanied with experiments. In order to raise a sum for remunerating an intelligent lecturer, persons not members of the society might be invited to attend, on the condition of paying a small contribution, the members at the same time contributing a little, though in a smaller proportion. In order to excite attention, and to stimulate the exercise of the rational faculty, an examination of such of the auditors as chose to submit to it, on the different particulars detailed in the lecture, might take place either at the conclusion of the lecture, or at some future hour; and, at the same time, an opportunity offered of putting questions to the lecturer, and stating any difficulties or objections which may have occurred to them, in order to their solution.-2. By the more intelligent members composing essays on particular subjects, and reading them to the society. For the benefit of young writers, it might be proper, in a candid and friendly manner, to point out the grammatical blunders, improper phrases, erroneous statements, or other improprieties which may be found in the essay; and the writer ought to consider such hints as so much new and useful information, by the help of which he may be enabled to render his future compositions more correct. In order to make a respectable figure as writers of essays, particular attention should be given to the arts of grammar and composition; and exercises and instructions on these subjects might occasionally form a part of the business of the society. As

some essays may occasionally be read of which the society may wish to have copies for future inspection, in order to save the trouble of the secretary transcribing them, it might be proper to recommend that every essay be written on paper of the same size, so that they might afterwards be bound in regular volumes, to be preserved as part of the records of the society. In this way, the literary communications made to the society would be recorded in the hand-writings of their respective authors, free of those errors which might be occasioned in their transcription by another hand.-3. Another method of discussion might be by Forensic disputations. In this case, a question is proposed and stated, and opposite sides of the question are supported by different speakers. This method has its advantages and its disadvantages. Its disadvantages are, that persons, in their eagerness to support the side they have taken, are sometimes apt to contend more for victory than for truth; and, unless they watch over their tempers, are ready to fall into a spirit of altercation and ill-humour, and to throw out unhandsome epithets against their opponents. Many persons, too, from their having ably supported the erroneous side of a question, have been insensibly led to adopt that opinion, though, in the first instance, they defended it merely for the sake of argument. Its advantages are, that it excites interest and attention, exercises the reasoning faculty, and affords an opportunity to every member of taking a part in the discussion. It may, when properly and calmly conducted, suggest useful information, and throw light on many obscure and interesting subjects. It has a tendency to teach persons not to be too rash in adopting opinions till they have weighed the objections that may be brought against them. As the discovery of truth ought to be the chief object in all literary debates-in order to insure this object, an intelligent person, who has taken no direct share in the debate, might be appointed to sum up the arguments on both sides, and endeavour to balance them, in order to ascertain on which side the truth seems to lie. tain cases, it will be found, that the truth does not lie directly on either side, but in a middle position between the two extremes. This mode of discussion, when adopted, should be used with extreme caution, with an equable temper, and with a sincere desire to discover truth, wherever it may be found; otherwise, it may be attended with hurtful consequences. -4. Another mode of discussion is, the determining of a question by an induction of facts or reasons, in order to illustrate a particular subject; or, in other words, by an inquiry into causes and effects. For example

In cer

IV. The Publications of the Society.-A considerable time would probably elapse before such a society would have it in its power to communicate any new discoveries worthy of the attention of the scientific world. Yet this consideration ought not, perhaps, to deter the society from exhibiting some of its transactions to public view. In the progress of the institution, after the lapse of a few years, a selection might be made of the best essays that had previously been communicated, and published in a neat duodecimo volume, with an historical account of the progress of the institution since its commencement, and the manner in which its operations are conducted, together with an abstract of the general progress of science during the same period, which might be collected from certain scientific journals. It would also be useful to give a brief statement of what has hitherto been discovered in relation to the different sciences, with hints respecting the desiderata, or things which still remain to be discovered-which would tend to direct the attention of the rational inquirer to those particular investigations by which science might be advanced, and carried forward to perfection. Such a volume, though it might not embody any new deductions, or discoveries, might, notwithstanding, be of considerable utility in different respects. It might convey new and useful information to those who are just commencing the study of science, and who have no access to the more learned transactions of other societies; it might become a depository for inserting accounts of interesting facts, and of researches that may be made in that part of the country where the society is situated; it might tend to excite the rational part of mankind in other cities and towns to form similar establishments, and to cultivate a mutual correspondence; and, as it would probably obtain a considerable circulation in the surrounding districts, (being printed in a cheap and economical form,) it might diffuse new information in different quarters where more expensive volumes would never have found admittance.

V. Correspondence and intercourse of the members of the different societies.-It might be of considerable use for promoting the object of these institutions, that the societies, in their corporate capacity, and individual members, should correspond with each other, both personally and by literary communications and that the members of one society, when occasionally residing in the locality of another, should be admitted gratis to all the privileges of that other society; such as, the use of the library, the inspection of the museum, and attendance on lectures. In order to designate the members of all such societies, and to pre

vent the necessity of a circumstantial proof of their belonging to similar institutions, every member might be furnished by his own society with an engraved card or ticket, or rather with a medal of brass or pewter, having the society's name and motto engraved on it, and to which the name of the person, at his admission, might also be appended. The advantages which would result from the possession of such a document are sufficiently obvious. It would form, as it were, a bond of union among all the lovers of science in different parts of the empire, and enable them with facility to recognize each other. Travellers, whether on business or for pleasure, when visiting the different towns in the line of their route, would thus obtain an easy access to the society of persons of congenial minds; useful hints would be reciprocally communicated, and an interesting correspondence occasionally formed, which might be productive of many pleasing and important consequences, both to the individuals and to the respective societies. They would thus feel themselves more at home, devoid of that ennui which one so frequently feels in strange places, and have an opportunity of improving those hours which might otherwise be dissipated in listlessness, to rational and scientific purposes. In short, by this means, the idea suggested by the celebrated Lord Verulam, of uniting the learned world into one great republic, might be in some measure realized; every person of intelligence carrying along with him his badge of distinction, and thus indicating to all congenial minds, the grand association to which he belongs.

The present is an age in which scientific associations have rapidly increased. The principle of the division of labour seems now to be judiciously acted upon in scientific investigations, by the formation of societies which have chiefly one great object to promote, or one particular science which they propose to cultivate; and therefore we have reason to indulge the hope, that the different sciences will now make more rapid advances to perfection than in former times. Still, however, much remains to be accomplished in regard to the establishment of literary and rationai associations. The discoveries hitherto made in the various departments of human knowledge are entirely unknown to by far the greatest proportion even of the civilized part of mankind. Institutions, therefore, still require to be formed, on an extensive scale, for communicating to the great mass of society at least the results of those researches which have hitherto been made, for eradicating those erroneous notions which so generally prevail. and for directing their attention to moral and intellectual pursuits. And should such socie.