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TURKEY.

derend the Porte's dominions in Asia, and received in return the right to occupy and administer Cyprus. The rectification of the Greek frontier was not arranged till 1881. After endless egotiations and procrastination, which for a while seemed almost certain to lead to war, the Porte agreed to cede, and Greece to accept, a considerable portion of territory, though less than the Congress of Berlin had recommended. The new frontier gave to Greece all Thessaly s. of the water-shed forming the n. boundary of the valley of the Salambria (anc. Peneus), including the towns of Larissa and Trikhala; and in Epirus follows the line of the Arta river, leaving the town of Arta to Greece. The fortifications of Prevesa were to be destroyed by the Turks, and the Gulf of Arta made neutral.

TURKEY IN EUROPE, generally hilly and undulating, is traversed by a mountain system which has its origin in the Alps, enters T. at the n.w. corner, and runs nearly parallel to the coast, under the names of the Dinaric Alps and Mt. Pindus, as far as the Greek frontier. This range sends numerous offshoots e. and w.; the great e. offshoot being the Balkan (q.v.) range, with its numerous n. and s. branches. The rivers of T. are chiefly tributaries of the Danube-the Maritza, Strumo, Vardar; the Narenta, Drin, and Voyutza.

On the high lands, the cold is excessive in winter, owing to the n.e. winds, from the bleak and icy steppes of s. Russia; and the heat of summer is almost insupportable in the w. valleys. Violent climatic change is, on the whole, the rule in European T.; but districts sheltered from the cold winds, as the Albanian valleys, have comparatively equable temperature. The soil mostly is very fertile; but the positive discouragement of industry by the oppressive system of taxation long in force has greatly hindered agricultural progress, and the most primitive implements are in common use. The cultivated products include most of those usual in central and s. Europe-maize, rice, cotton, rye, barley, and millet. The mineral products are: iron in abundance, argentiferous lead ore, copper, sulphur, salt, alum, and a little gold, but no coal. The wild animals are the wild boar, bear, wolf, wild-dog, civet, chamois, wild ox, and those others which are generally distributed in Europe. The lion formerly inhabited the Thessalian Mountains.

TURKEY IN ASIA.-This portion of the Turkish empire is more hilly than the other. The two almost parallel ranges Taurus and Anti-Taurus, the basis of its mountain system, cover almost the whole peninsula of Asia Minor or Anatolia (q.v.) with their ramifications and offshoots, forming the surface into elevated plateaux, deep valleys, and inclosed plains. From the Taurus chain, the Lebanon range proceeds s., parallel to the coast of Syria, and, diminishing in elevation in Palestine, terminates toward the Red Sea coast at Sinai. The Euphrates, Tigris, Orontes, and Kizil-Eriak are the chief rivers. On the whole, T. in Asia is ill supplied with water, and though the mountain slopes afford abundance of excellent pasture, the plains,

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and many of the valleys, especially of the Euphrates, Tigris, and Jordan, are reduced by the parching droughts of summer to the condition of sandy deserts. In ancient times these now desert districts were preserved in fertility by artificial irrigation; but during the six centuries of almost constant war which convulsed this once fair region, the canals were neglected, and have, ever since the rise of the Osmanli power, remained unserviceable. Nevertheless the fertile portions produce abundance of wheat, barley, rice, maize, tobacco, hemp, flax, and cotton; the cedar, cypress, and evergreen oak flourish on the mountain slopes; the sycamore and mulberry on the lower hills; and the olive, fig, citron, orange, pomegranate, and vine on the low lands. The mineral products are iron, copper, lead, alum, silver, rock-salt, coal (in Syria), and limestone. The fauna includes the lion (e. of the Euphrates), the hyena, lynx, panther, leopard, buffalo, wild boar, wild ass, bear, wolf, jackal, jerboa, and many others; and the camel and dromedary increase the ordinary list of domestic animals.

Possessions in Africa.—Tripoli is a vilayet of the Ottoman empire. Egypt, under its hereditary khedive, is still tributary to the Porte, though of late years the relations of the tributary state to its suzerain have been gradually becoming looser, and Brit. influence has for several years been dominant in its administration. Tunis, till 1881 under Turkish suzerainty, is practically a French protectorate. See TRIPOLI: EGYPT: TUNIS: also OTTOMAN EMPIRE.

Industry and Trade.-Owing to the tenure of land in T. agriculture is in a very backward state. The greater part of the land is crown land,' the right to cultivate being granted on payment of certain fees, subject to a certain amount of state supervision and subject to revocation if left idle three years. A further system of levying tithes on all produce and a tax of 8 per cent. on exports from one province to another (cereals were exempted from this tax in 1893, and it is proposed ultimately to abolish it entirely) discourage the thrift and enterprise of the farmer, and as a natural result a large portion of the arable land is not cultivated, though of great natural fertility. The chief exports in order of importance are grapes, silk and cocoons, grain, cotton, mohair, opium, coffee, valonia, figs. wool, and olive oil. In the year ending 1893, Mar. 1, total imports were valued at $107,654,780; exports excluding tobacco, $64,116,976; principal ports, Constantinople, Trebizond, and Smyrna, the trade being chiefly with Great Britain, Austria, and France. The entrances and clearances at Turkish ports 1894-5 were 192,269 vessels of 37,618,549 tons; and the mercantile marine 1895 comprised 78 steam-vessels of 37,843 tons, and 786 sailing-vessels of 151,800 tons. In 1896 there were 2,423 m. of railroad in operation in European and 410 in Asiatic T.

Administration, Religion, Education.-The government of T. has always been a pure despotism; the constitution granted 1876 and revoked 1878 was only nominal. The

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power of the sultan (called also Padishah, Grand Seignior, Khan, and Hunkiar) is much limited by the sheikh-ul-islam, chief of the Ulemas (q.v.), who has the power of objecting to any of the sultan's decrees, and frequently exercises more authority over the people than his sovereign. The supreme head of the administration, and next in rank to the sultan, is the grand vizier (sadri-azam), under whom are the members of the cabinet or divan (menasybi-divaniïé), including the pres. of the council, the ministers of foreign affairs, of war, of the navy, of artillery, of the interior, of justice, of finances, and the other heads of administrative departments. Governmental crises are frequent, especially of late; but palace intrigues are always a chief element in the state. The governors of the vilayets, or provinces, are styled valis; each vilayet is divided into sanjaks, or livas, ruled by inferior officers; each liva containing a number of cazas, or districts; and each caza a number of nahiyehs. The provincial governors have no longer the power of life and death; and their power of practicing extortion on those under their rule has been greatly diminished. The variable imposts are still farmed; though considerable restrictions are imposed to protect the people from oppression. The established religion is Mohammedanism, but all other creeds are recognized and tolerated; and since 1856 a Mussulman has been free to change his religion at pleasure, without becoming liable, as formerly, to capital punishment. In lack of official data as to the religion of the people, it may be roughly estimated that in European T. about three-fifths of the inhabitants are Mohammedans-the remainder being in large part Greek and Armenian Christians. Education was long neglected; but a new system was introduced 1847; and schools for elementary instruction have since been established throughout T., and middle schools for higher education, and colleges for the teaching of medicine, agriculture, naval and military science, etc. Many wealthy Turks, however, send their sons to France or Britain to be educated. The newspapers published in T. are not all printed in Turkish: several are in Greek, French, and other languages.

Revenue and Debt.-Years before the war of 1877, the Turkish exchequer was evidently on the brink of insolvency. In 1875 a decree reduced the interest payable on the debt to one-half the proper amount; and another decree 1876 announced that no further payments would be made till the internal affairs of the empire should allow. The enormous expenditure of the war, and the loss of valuable provinces, added to the disorganization of the finances.

The first budget that admitted a deficit was that of 1874 -5, where the revenue was given at $109,604,178, and the expenditure at $111,048,104. In 1875-6 the revenue was estimated at $92,856,870, and the expenditure at $112,476,321. In 1878-9 the revenue was guessed at $68,040,000, expenditure (with part of the war expenses) $243,000,000. In 1890 the sultan ordered the preparation of a budget for 1890-1, none having been issued since 1879. The esti

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mates for 1897-8 made before the war with Greece showed a small surplus. The average for the three years 1892-3 to 1894-5 were receipts $83,282,078, expenditures $87,103,200. By the treaty of Berlin the total external debt of the empire, $1,083,780,000 was to be capitalized, and specific portions to be assumed by Bulgaria, Montenegro, Servia, and Greece; and by arrangements, 1881, Dec., the external debt was to be reduced to about $515,160,000, and certain revenues handed over to a European commission of liquidation. A consolidation of the various loans of the empire was effected on favorable terms 1884-88, and the total debt 1896, July 1, was $639,158,642, besides $138,828,615 still due on the Russian war indemnity.

Army and Navy.—The navy has almost disappeared, and the few obsolete ships which it had left were declared to be unseaworthy when the war with Greece broke out in 1897. The army was in better condition, and in 1897 was estimated on a war footing as, infantry 583,200, cavalry 55,300, artillery 54,720 men and 1,356 guns.

War with Greece. -In 1896 a revolt in the island of Crete broke out, and in Feb., 1897, Greece sent troops to the island and proclaimed the union of Crete with Greece as the only solution of the difficulty. After an ineffectual protest T. gathered an army on the Thessalian frontier under command of Edhem Pasha to oppose the Greek army under Prince Constantine. War was formally declared Apr. 17, and on the same day the Turks captured Molouna Pass after a fierce resistance, Larissa on Apr. 24, and Dokomos May 18. An armistice on May 19 ended the almost uninterrupted successes of the Turks, leaving them in possession of the whole of Thessaly. Greece placed her cause unreservedly in the hands of the Great Powers, and peace negotiations were opened.

The following estimate of the population in 1896 is based on the incomplete census of 1885, the latest taken.

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TURKEY BUZZARD-TURKIS.

TUR'KEY BUZZARD: see VULTURE.

TURKEY-RED: most durable, and perhaps most beautiful color yet produced on cotton; dyed by a process sup posed to have been practiced in India from immemorial time. It passed thence through other parts of Asia to the countries of the Levant, and was introduced into France about the middle of the 18th c.; and into Britain (Glasgow) 1783, by a Rouen dyer named Papillon, in conjunction with George Macintosh. Papillon allowed his process to be made public 1803; and T.-R. dyeing has since been extensively carried on in Glasgow and vicinity, and in Lancashire.

There is a mode of dyeing cotton red with madder practiced by calico-printers-the cloth being previously bleached with chloride of lime-where the whole process occupies only a day or two. But in the case of T.-R., also a madder-dye, the operations are long and tedious, and the bleaching with chloride of lime especially objectionable. The theory of this process is not well understood; hence it has been found impossible materially to shorten it. The three most essential of the eight operations are the oiling, or rather the impregnation with an oleaginous soap, the mordanting with alumina, and the dyeing with madder; but it is found that, if any of the numerous dippings in the oily emulsions are left out, the color is inferior in proportion to the number of omissions. This is the least-understood part of the process, and doubtless gives the dye its ich appearance, which approaches some of the fine reds produced on wool.

Besides being largely used in its plain state, T.-R. cloth is extensively employed for handkerchiefs with white_paterns produced on them by discharging the color (see BANDANA); and, of late years, articles of various kinds, with patterns in several colors, have been produced by ordinary calico-printing machines, where, by proper arrangements. the different colors are obtained on parts where the red color is discharged by chloride of lime.

TURKIS, n. ter kis: see TURQUOISE.

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