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to another, according to the conditions under which they are placed." The classification of Reess as given above is not accepted on all hands, for the chief reason just given, that it has been observed that yeast fungi appear to have the property of changing into a variety of forms. Thus Dr. W. B. Carpenter ("The Microscope and its Revelations," London, 1874) says: "It would appear that yeast may be produced by sowing in a liquid favorable to its development the sporules of any of the ordinary moulds, such as penicillium glaucum, mucor, or aspergillus, provided the temperature be kept up to blood heat; and this even though the solution has been previously heated to 284° F., a temperature which must kill any germs it may itself contain." Prof. J. Cienkowski has made a series of experiments on the development of mycoderma vini, in which he finds that the white pellicle which forms on the surface of various organic fluids, as urine, beer, milk, fruit juice, and cucumber juice, consists principally of two ingredients, mycoderma vini and oïdium lactis, the special ferment of milk. (See " Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science," April, 1875.)-The chemical composition of yeast is remarkable from its large amount of nitrogen. Careful analyses by Schlossberger give the following for the two varieties of beer yeast:

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In this it is seen that the chief constituents are phosphoric acid and potash, and a calculation of the state in which all the elements are combined may be made as follows:

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These analyses have a strong resemblance, particularly in albuminoid elements, to those obtained with mushrooms and other fungi. The elaborate experiments of Boussingault show that ordinary plants have the power to eliminate nitrogen from its saline compounds, the nitrates, and the question has arisen whether yeast has the same power. The experiments of Dubrunfaut lead to the affirmative, while those of Ad. Mayer give a negative indication. The experiments of Pasteur, in which he supplied the growing yeast with a solution of pure sugar, to which were added ammonium tartrate and the ashes of yeast (containing phosphates), go to show that the ammonium salt slowly yields its nitrogen, which is transformed into albuminoid matter, while the phosphates contained in the ashes furnish mineral matter to the new plant. But according to the observations of M. Cloëz it is possible that ammoniacal salts are gradually transformed, before the nitrogen is appropriated, into nitrates; this idea agrees with the ordinary phenomena of nitrification, and it has been found that, although yeast may decompose ammoniacal compounds, its own more natural nitrogenous aliment is contained in the juices of plants. M. Pasteur maintains the absolute dependence of the development of yeast upon the presence of alkaline phosphates; but the statement was disputed by Liebig, who contended that other conditions of M. Pasteur's experiments prevented development.

YEAST POWDERS, or Baking Powders, substitutes for yeast, used in making bread. The chief object of the use of yeast in bread is to develop carbonic acid gas in the dough, by which bubbles are formed in it and give it lightness. By many this process is preferred, as any decomposition of the flour is avoided. Some of the carbonates of the alkalies are commonly used for the purpose. Bicarbonate

or sesquicarbonate of soda may be used in connection with sour milk, or tartaric acid, or bitartrate of potash. Sometimes the acid and carbonate are mingled together in a perfectly dry state, and are therefore mixed with the flour at the same time previous to wetting. Phosphate of lime has been added to baking powders with the intention of restoring the phosphates which may have been lost with the bran in bolting the flour. Carbonic acid is also added to the dough of bread mechanically, under pressure, and such bread is called aërated bread. Beer yeast may also be used in the form of powder, or in cakes, by mixing it with flour or Indian meal, and drying it. It is usual to allow the paste to ferment after the yeast is added to the flour.

YEDO. See TOKIO.

YEISK, a town of European Russia, in the Ciscaucasian territory of the Kuban, at the mouth of the Yeya, 125 m. N. N. W. of Yekaterinodar; pop. about 30,000. It was built in 1848, on a tongue of land which separates the Yeisk estuary from the sea of Azov, and has become an important centre of trade and industry. The principal exports are grain, wool, and linseed.

YEKATERINBURG, a city of Russia, on the Asiatic or E. side of the Ural mountains, on the Isset, in the government and 180 m. S. E. of the city of Perm; pop. in 1867, 24,500. It is the administrative capital and chief emporium of the Ural mining districts. It has two cathedrals, ten other churches, some palatial residences, gardens and parks, an observatory, a mineralogical museum, a chemical laboratory, a mining and other schools, a mint for copper coinage, and government iron works and ma

chine shops. The rich mines in the vicinity include copper, and especially iron and platinum, which last is found almost exclusively in this region. The gold washings in the Isset are of some importance. Malachite and other precious stones, brought from Siberia, are worked at the great lapidary establishments. Jasper vases are ornamented with delicate carvings, executed with extraordinary skill and taste by workmen engaged at very low wages. The "granite" works, which belong to the government, turn out columns, pedestals, tables, and many other articles unrivalled in workmanship. Yekaterinburg was founded by Peter the Great in 1722, and was named after the empress Catharine I.

YEKATERINODAR, a town of European Russia, capital of the Ciscaucasian territory of the Kuban, on the left bank of the river Kuban, 140 m. S. by W. of Azov; pop. in 1867, 8,765. It is a wretched place, surrounded by morasses. Gardens are attached to the houses, which are mostly of earth, though a few are of wood. It has a cathedral with six modern towers, and a krepost or timber fortress, where the hetman of the Cossacks resides.

YEKATERINOGRAD, a fortified town of European Russia, in the Ciscaucasian territory of the Terek, on the left bank of the river Terek, 20 m. W. of Mozdok; pop. about 5,000. It is a chief military Cossack station, and is noted for its abundance of pheasants, which form the principal food. It was founded in 1777 by Potemkin, in whose honor Catharine II. erected here an arch of stone.

YEKATERINOSLAV. I. A government of South Russia or New Russia, bordering on the gov

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rians, Serbs, and Roumans. The country is flat and steppe-like, excepting along the hilly shores of the Dnieper, the chief river. The soil is favorable to agriculture and the raising of cattle; some of the finest-wooled sheep of Russia are in this government. Timber is scarce, but coal abounds. Fruits, including figs and almonds, are produced in the south, as well as wine, much of which is made from the sloe or wild plum. Silk is also produced. Yekaterinoslav was peopled with new colonies in 1752, and called New Servia, and after 1764 New Russia; since 1783 it has formed the present government, containing many cities, the most important of which are the seaports Taganrog, Mariupol, and Alexandrovsk, the fortress Rostov, and Nakhitchevan, the headquarters of the Armenians. II. A city, capital of the government, on the right bank of the Dnieper, 250 m. N. E. of Odessa; pop. in 1867, 22,548. It has seven churches, a gymnasium with a public library, an ecclesiastical seminary, a botanic garden, a park, cloth and silk manufactories, and an annual wool fair. There is much trade with Odessa. In the vicinity is a ruined palace of Potemkin, who founded the town in 1784, and named it after the empress Catharine II.

YELISAVETGRAD. See ELISABETHGRAD. YELL, a W. county of Arkansas, bounded N. E. by Arkansas river, and intersected by its tributaries Fourche la Fave and Petit Jean rivers; area, 936 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 8,048, of whom 767 were colored. It has a diversified surface, and the soil is generally fertile. The chief productions in 1870 were 13,802 bushels of wheat, 206,075 of Indian corn, 11,890 of oats, 6,269 of Irish and 15,932 of sweet potatoes, 97,392 lbs. of butter, 2,999 of wool, 4,404 of tobacco, and 3,671 bales of cotton. There were 1,397 horses, 5,336 cattle, 2,200 sheep, and 14,224 swine. Capital, Danville.

YELLOW BIRD. I. The American goldfinch or thistle bird (chrysomitris tristis, Bonap.).

Yellow Bird (Chrysomitris tristis).

It is 5 in. long and 84 in. in extent of wings. The male is of a bright gamboge-yellow color, with black crown, wings, and tail; band across wings, inner margin of tail feathers, and upper and under tail coverts, white; in winter it is yellowish brown above and ashy brown below,

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very much like the females at all seasons. is generally distributed over North America, seldom alighting on the ground except to drink and bathe; many are usually seen together, feeding on the seeds of hemp, sunflowers, lettuce, and thistles, and sometimes on elder and other berries; the song is very pleasing, and for this as well as its beauty, sprightliness, and docility, it is kept in cages; it lives for years in confinement, practising many of the tricks taught to canaries, with which it will breed. Like the European goldfinch, it makes its nest, in a tree or bush, of lichens fastened together with saliva, and lined with the softest substances it can procure; the eggs are four to six, white tinged with bluish, with reddish brown spots at the larger end; one brood only is raised in a season, and the young follow their parents a long time, being fed from their mouths. Several other nearly allied species are described in vol. ix. of the Pacific railroad reports. II. The summer yellow bird, or yellow-poll warbler (dendroica astiva, Baird), is of about the same size, with the head and lower parts bright yellow; rest of upper parts yellowish olivaceous, the back, breast, and sides streaked with brownish red; tail bright yellow, with the outer webs and tips brown; two yellow bands on the wings; bill dark blue; in the female the crown is greenish olive. It is found throughout the United States, going north to lat. 68°, south to Central and South America and the West Indies, and extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific; numerous in New England in the summer, it goes south in autumn in small flocks, chiefly at night; its song is not melodious; the food consists principally of insects, which are sought for among the leaves and blossoms. It builds in bushes, often very near dwellings and in thickly settled places; the nest is strongly fastened to the fork of a bush, and is made externally of hemp, flax, wool, cotton, or the down of the brake, and is lined with hair and soft materials; the eggs are four or five, by in., light dull bluish white, with numerous dots and marks of dull reddish brown; only one brood is raised in New England, which are carefully fed and protected, the parents using the most ingenious devices to draw away intruders. The cow bird often selects the nest of the summer yellow bird in which to deposit one of its parasitic eggs; the yellow bird, as it cannot eject the large strange egg, picks a hole in it, and buries it at the bottom of the nest, placing a new floor over it; it sometimes buries its own eggs with that of the cow bird, and lays others; if by chance the cow bird visit the second nest, it buries the eggs a second time, giving rise to the three-storied nests occasionally found by egg hunters.

YELLOW-EYED GRASS, the common name for plants of the genus xyris (Gr. Evpis, some plant with two-edged leaves), which consists of biennial or perennial rush-like plants, and gives its name to a small order of endogens, the

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xyridacea. The plants have sword-shaped leaves sheathing the base of an otherwise naked stem, which in the different species is from 2 in. to 4 ft. high, cylindrical or flattened, and bearing at its summit an ovoid or oblong spike, consisting of rounded, firm, sometimes crustaceous, imbricated bracts, from the axil of each of which a small yellow flower is produced. The calyx consists of three sepals, the two lateral boat-shaped, and often fringed on the keel; the petals three; stamens six, the three alternate ones sterile and often bearded at the summit; the one-celled, three-valved capsule containing numerous small seeds. More than 50 species are described, of which about 15 belong to the United States, especially southward; one species, X. flexuosa, and its variety pusilla, extend from Vermont to Lake Superior; they mostly grow in sandy swamps and pine barrens, where they produce their small, bright yellow flowers all summer. Though of no economical importance, the plants are of much interest to the botanist.

YELLOW FEVER. See FEVERS, vol. vii., p. 165. YELLOW-HAMMER (emberiza citrinella, Linn.), a very common European bird of the bunting family. It is 7 in. long and 11 in. in extent of wings; in the male the head and throat are bright yellow, on the crown the feathers tipped with black; breast brownish red; back and wings bright red, the centre of each feather brownish black; body rather stout. It is very common throughout Europe in the wooded districts, familiar, and a permanent resident; in winter it is seen with sparrows, finches, &c., in the fields, and about hedges, coming into farm yards when the ground is covered with snow; the food consists of the seeds of grains and grasses; the nest is on or near the ground, and the eggs four or five, by in., purplish white with streaks and dots of black. When deprived of its eggs, its doleful notes in some parts of Scotland have been interpreted as "De'il, de'il, de'il take ye;" hence its name of "devil bird."

YELLOW-LEGS (gambetta flavipes, Bonap.), a North American wading bird of the tattler family. It is about 10 in. long and 194 in. in extent of wings, considerably smaller than the tell-tale tattler (see TATTLER), which it resembles in colors; the bill is 14 in., straight and slender; wings long and pointed, tail short, legs long with lower half of tibia naked. The general color is ashy above, with many large arrow-heads and spots of brownish black edged with ashy white; rump and upper tail coverts white, the latter barred with ashy brown; lower parts white, with numerous lines on the neck and arrow-heads on the sides dark ashy brown; bill greenish black, and legs yellow. It is generally distributed over eastern North America, and is one of the most abundant of the group on the Atlantic slope from Maine to Florida, chiefly in the interior; it migrates to Mexico and Central America in winter. It is usually seen in small flocks wading in search

of small fry, shrimps, worms, and aquatic insects, both in salt and fresh water; in dry weather the flocks are found on the uplands, feeding on grasshoppers and other insects; during flight the long yellow legs are stretched out behind. The nest is made among the grass on the edges of rivers and ponds. In autumn they get very fat and are good eating.

YELLOW MEDICINE, a S. W. county of Minnesota, bounded N. É. by the Minnesota river; area, 792 sq. m.; pop. in 1875, 2,484. It is watered by the Lac qui Parle and Yellow Medicine rivers. The surface is an uneven table land, consisting of open plains and prairies. Capital, Granite Falls.

YELLOW RIVER, or Hoang-ho. See CHINA, vol. iv., p. 442.

YELLOW-ROOT, a common name applied in different parts of the country to different plants; the most important of these, hydrastis, is described elsewhere under one of its several common names. (See PUCCOON.) Another plant of the same family is xanthoriza apifolia, the common name being a translation of the generic (Gr. Favoós, yellow, and pica, a root); it is sometimes called yellow-wood, a name which properly belongs to cladrastis, a large tree (see VIRGILIA), and also shrub yellow-root. The genus belongs to the crowfoot family (ranunculacea), and is remarkable as being the only member of the family within the United States that forms an erect shrub; there is but one species, found sparingly in New York, and more abundantly along the mountains from Pennsylvania southward. It has long, creeping, yellow roots and rootstocks, sending up sparingly branched woody stems, seldom over 2 ft. high; the pinnately compound leaves have 3 to 7 ovate-toothed leaflets; the polygamous flowers appear in early spring from terminal buds, in compound drooping racemes, and are brownish purple; the 5 to 15 pistils ripen into one-seeded pods. The bright yellow roots were used by the Indians as a dye; they contain berberine. It is intensely bitter, and is used as a tonic in the same manner as columbo, quassia, and similar bitter medicines.-The plant usually known as gold-thread (see COPTIS) is in some localities called yellow-root, as are also celastrus (see WAXWORK) and the twin-leaf, Jeffersonia`diphylla (see Jeffersonia).

YELLOW SEA (Chinese, Hoang-hai), a large sea on the N. E. coast of China, between the peninsula of Corea on the east, the Chinese provinces of Kiangsu, Shantung, and Chihli on the west, and Shinking or Liaotung on the north. In the northwest it terminates in the gulfs of Liaotung and Pechili; the latter is important from its reception of numerous large rivers, among which are the Pei-ho and Hoangho. The two gulfs are nearly separated from the remainder of the Yellow sea by the Shantung promontory, and the long narrow peninsula known as the "Regent's Sword." On the E. coast are numerous groups of islets, form

ing the Corean archipelago. The sea is very shallow, and it derives its name from the turbidness of its waters, which flow over a bottom of yellow alluvium easily stirred up by vessels passing over it. Its length is about 600 m., and its greatest breadth about 400 m. The Hoang-ho or Yellow river carries into it an immense quantity of detritus.

YELLOW SPRINGS, a village of Miami township, Greene co., Ohio, 75 m. N. E. of Cincinnati; pop. in 1870, 1,435. It is on the Springfield branch of the Little Miami division of the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and St. Louis railroad. It takes its name from a mineral spring of local celebrity. The village has a graded school for white children, an ungraded school for colored children, and Baptist (colored), Christian, Episcopal, Methodist (one white and one colored), Presbyterian, and Roman Catholic churches. It is chiefly noted as the seat of Antioch college. (See ANTIOCH COLLEGE.) The village was incorporated in 1854.

YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK. See WYOMING, territory.

YELLOWSTONE RIVER, a tributary of the Missouri, rising in Yellowstone lake, in the Yellowstone national park, N. W. Wyoming, near the sources of the Madison (the main constituent of the Missouri) and the Snake. It flows first N. through a series of cañons, about 100 m., into and through a portion of Montana, when, issuing from the mountains, it pursues an E. N. E. course of about 500 m. to its mouth on the border of Montana and Dakota. The lake is 22 by 15 m. in extent, with an elevation of 7,788 ft. above the sea and a maximum depth of 300 ft. Its shores are rugged but picturesque. It contains immense numbers of salmon trout. The Upper Yellowstone, about 25 m. long, the ultimate source of the river, flows into it. The elevation of the mouth of the Yellowstone is 2,010 ft. About 15 m. below the lake are the upper falls, where the river, after passing through a series of rapids, makes an abrupt descent of 140 ft. The lower falls, m. further down, are 360 ft. high. The stream then flows for 20 m. through the Grand cañon, whose perpendicular sides, from 200 to 500 yards apart, rise to the height of 1,000 ft. Just below the Grand cañon the river receives Tower creek, which flows through a gloomy cañon, 10 m. long, known as the "Devil's Den." About 200 yards above its mouth the creek has an abrupt fall of 156 ft., surrounded by columns of breccia resembling towers. Below the mountains the course of the Yellowstone lies through a wide open valley bounded by high rolling hills. Lignite is abundant along its banks. Its chief tributaries, proceeding down the stream, are Shields river. and Great and Little Porcupine rivers on the left, and Beaver river, Big Rosebud creek, Clarke's fork, Pryor's, Big Horn, Rosebud, Tongue, and Powder rivers on the right. The Big Horn and Powder are much the largest of these tributaries. The Yellowstone is navi

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gable to near the mouth of the Big Horn, about 300 m. above the Missouri.

YELLOW-THROAT (geothlypis trichas, Caban.), a very common North American warbler. It is 54 in. long and 7 in. in extent of wings; the color is olive-green above, tinged with brown on the crown; chin, throat, breast, and under tail coverts, bright yellow; abdomen dull whitish buff; broad black band on forehead, bordered behind by hoary white; in winter in the males, and always in the females, there is no black band on the forehead; the wings are short and rounded, with the fourth quill the longest, the tail considerably graduated, and the legs long and yellow. It is found throughout North America, but is most abundant in the middle states, especially in Maryland, preferring the neighborhood of swamps. The

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Yellow-throat (Geothlypis trichas).

song, though not very musical, is pleasing, and from its frequent repetition forces itself on one's notice, as it hops from twig to twig in search of insects, caterpillars, and spiders, uttering its "whittititee." The nest is made on the ground, even partly sunk in it, and is occasionally covered, whence the common name of "oven bird;" it is constructed externally of leaves and grass, and lined with hair; the eggs are four to six, by in., white with light brown specks, and are laid about the middle of May. Its nest is often selected by the cow bird as the place of deposit for one of its parasitic eggs, which is generally hatched out at the expense of the yellow-throat's own offspring, this warbler not possessing the remarkable instinct of another noticed under YELLOW BIRD. In some districts it raises two broods in a season.

YEMASSEES, Yamassees, or Savannahs, a tribe of American Indians figuring in South Carolina history, and apparently comprising some or all of the bands of southern or Spanish Shawnees. They were in Florida about 1680, and soon after commenced hostilities against the Spaniards. They then retired to the Savannah and settled on the N. E. side, where, becoming allies of the English, who called them first Savannahs and then Yemassees, they formed a check to the Spaniards. In 1705 they were won over by the latter, or from their restless character formed a confederacy of tribes, and began a general massacre, April 15. They advanced to Stono, killing all and burning the settlements. Gov. Craven met

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