works include Erzählungen (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1826-'7); Schiller's Leben (2 vols., 1830; new eds., 1845 and 1851); Cordelia (2 vols., Leipsic, 1840; 2d ed., 1845); and Literarischer Nachlass (2 vols, 1848-'9; 2d ed., 1867).

WOMAN'S RIGHTS, a question involving the political, industrial, educational, and general social status of women, and their legal rights and disabilities. It embraces topics treated under ALIMONY, DIVORCE, HUSBAND AND WIFE, MARRIAGE, and MARRIAGE SETTLEMENTS, and a popular movement which demands for women the same public rights and opportunities that are enjoyed by male citizens. This movement began in the United States in the middle of the present century, in connection with the anti-slavery agitation, with which it at first identified itself. The first conventions were held at Seneca Falls and Rochester in 1848, under the auspices of Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Amelia Bloomer, Mrs. Stebbins, and Frederick Douglass. Among other early advocates of the cause were Lucretia Mott, Paulina Wright Davis, Ernestine L. Rose, Frances D. Gage, and Sarah Tyndale. In 1851 Susan B. Anthony presided at a convention in Syracuse, with the cooperation of Lucy Stone and Antoinette L. Brown. Annual conventions assembled at New York from 1852 till the outbreak of the civil war. In 1863 Miss Anthony organized the "Loyal Women's League." Among other subsequent bodies was the "American Suffrage Association," chiefly in the New England states, of which Mary A. Livermore and Julia Ward Howe were the principal founders. The "National Woman's Suffrage Association " opened its ninth annual meeting in New York, May 10, 1876. Mrs. Matilda Joslyn Gage proposed a woman's declaration of independence for July 4, 1876. Mrs. Stanton was elected president for the ensuing year, and Lucretia Mott and others vice presidents, representing every state in the Union. The other officers were Miss Anthony, Laura Curtis Bullard, Lillie Devereux Blake, Ellen C. Sargent, and Jane Graham Jones. The elective franchise and the right to sit on juries were granted to women in Wyoming territory, Dec. 10, 1869, and the former in Utah in 1870. The constitutional amendment for female suffrage was adopted in Iowa in 1876 by the house, and was barely defeated in the senate. In that state women have been for several years appointed notaries public, and chosen directors in school districts and county superintendents of common schools. The legality of their tenure of the last office, being contested, was finally confirmed in 1876 by both branches of the legislature, with but few dissenting votes. The discussion of female political rights was recently revived in the legislature of New York. The many petitions lately presented to various legislative bodies included one by the women of the District of Columbia to the house of representatives on March 31, 1876, the centennial anniversary of an application said to have

been made by Mrs. Abigail Adams to her husband, John Adams, urging him to shape the organic laws so as to enable women to protect their own rights. In several states women who pay school taxes are allowed to vote at school meetings. Illinois admits them by statute to the legal profession, and it is open to them in some other states. The state librarian of Michigan is now (1876) a woman, and in New York one was recently appointed commissioner of the state charities. Women were first appointed to clerkships in the public departments at Washington under President Lincoln; hundreds have since been employed there, and are found to be especially expert and accurate in handling money in the treasury. At several universities they are admitted as students and receive academical degrees. Elizabeth Blackwell was in 1849 the first to receive the degree of M. D., conferred upon her by the medical school at Geneva, N. Y. In 1854 she and her sister Emily opened the New York infirmary for women and children, greatly assisted by Mary Elizabeth Zakrzewska, the originator of the scheme; the latter graduated at the medical school of Cleveland, and in 1863 founded a great institution at Boston, serving under her direction both as a hospital and a school. Antoinette L. Brown (Blackwell) was among the first to be ordained as a minister of religion, at Henrietta, N. Y.; and many other women have chosen the clerical, medical, and legal professions, or excelled as lecturers.— The American machinery of conventions for the promotion of reforms does not prevail in England; but owing to the larger preponderance of women employed there in hard labor and under adverse circumstances as governesses and in other callings, the movement is gaining ground in London and other cities. Mary Wollstonecraft, wife of William Godwin, was among the pioneers. Her "Vindication of the Rights of Women" (London, 1791) led Frances Wright to disseminate the same views in the United States. John Stuart Mill and his wife gave a powerful impulse to the cause in both hemispheres. On May 2, 1867, he moved an amendment to the reform bill in favor of female suffrage, on the ground that the constitution made taxation and representation coexistent, and that it had been granted in counties and boroughs in previous eras. The amendment was rejected by 196 votes; but 76 favored it, including Sir G. Bowyer and Prof. Fawcett. In 1869 Russell Gurney, the recorder of London, put forward a bill, originally proposed by Mr. Locke King, for protecting the 800,000 wage-earning and other married women in their property. In 1870 it was adopted, but so much modified in the house of lords that women still remain incompetent to use, bequeath, or hold their own money. The elementary education act of 1870 made women eligible to school boards; and at the first election, toward the close of that year, Dr. Elizabeth Anderson-Garrett, a well known advocate

and molars; the latter are rootless, with flat crowns surrounded by enamel, there being a deep furrow down the inside of the upper and outside of the lower ones; the whole number of teeth is 24; the body of the atlas remains permanently cartilaginous, the ribs are 15 or 16 pairs, the humerus has an opening between the condyles and the inner one perforated, and the patella is absent; there is a short cæcum and vermiform appendage. It is 2 or 3 ft. long, plump, with a thick coat of long, grayish brown, woolly hair; head large, wide, flat, and rabbit-like, with upper lip cleft, and small eyes and ears; legs short and nearly equal, and the feet five-toed, all except the small inner one of the hind feet with long claws; tail half an inch, nearly naked. The animal walks on the soles, which are broad and naked. It is nocturnal and slow-moving, living in holes among the rocks or in burrows dug by itself; the food consists of grass and roots; it is easily domesticated, and has three or four young at a

Wombat (Phascolomys wombat). birth. In the mountainous districts near Port Jackson its flesh is preferred to that of all other animals of Australia. Remains of a fossil species have been found in the caves at Wellington valley, Australia.

WOOD (A. S. wudu), the substance forming the body of the trunk and branches of a tree. The stems of flowering plants are made up of cells of two kinds; the soft parts consist of thin and but little elongated cells, which together form cellular tissue, and running through these are elongated tough and fibre-like cells forming woody tissue. In stems of only one season's duration, the proportion of woody tissue is small, and these are called herbaceous, and the plants herbs. In stems which last from year to year the woody tissue largely preponderates over the cellular, and such stems furnish the substance known as wood. The characters of cellular and woody tissue are given under PLANT, and in that article will also be found an account of the manner of the growth and annual increase of stems, and matters relating to their structure which have a direct relation to their value and utility as wood. The stems of endogens, while they are VOL. XVI.-45

often of great utility in the countries producing them (see PALM), form no appreciable portion of the wood of commerce, and are but little used in temperate climates. Small quantities of Palmyra, porcupine, and speckled woods, from the stems of the cocoanut and other palms, are employed by the makers of ornamental cabinet work, usually in the form of veneers. The great class of exogenous plants furnishes most of the material known as wood; in these the woody tissue is arranged in a circle around a central pith, and the stem increases in diameter by the formation of an annual layer upon the outside of the old wood; the character of these annual layers, and the manner in which the woody tissue is interpenetrated by plates of cellular tissue, the medullary rays, greatly affect the physical properties of the wood. In chemical composition the different kinds of wood vary greatly; the basis of the wood cells is the same as that of those forming cellular tissue, the principle cellulose (C12H20O10), identical in composition with starch, dextrine, and other principles, and but little different from the sugars. But the cells soon become thickened by the deposit upon their interior of a substance which renders them harder and thicker; this incrusting material was formerly regarded as a distinct principle, to which the name lignine was given, but it is now regarded as a mixture of different substances, which on account of the difficulty of separating them from one another, and from cellulose, have not been analyzed; these, according to their solubility in or relations to chemical reagents, have received the names lignose, lignone, lignine, and lignireose. Besides these, under the collective name of lignine, various resins, coloring matters, and principles peculiar to particular genera and families of plants, are deposited in the cells, as well as the earthy matters that appear in the ash when wood is burned; some of these deposits constitute the chief value of particular kinds of wood, such as those used in dyeing, or to afford medicinal extracts. In many stems the change produced by the filling up of the cells is very marked, the older wood being much darker and harder; this is called heart wood, and the newer tissues, in which the change has not taken place, are called sap wood. In some cases the heart wood does not become colored, and its cells are but little. thickened, as in the white pine, poplar, and tulip tree, technically known as white timber or white woods. The heart wood has ceased to take any part in the vegetative processes, being practically dead, and is of no use to the tree except by mechanically strengthening the trunk; hence it is not rare to find trees in good health from which the centre has been removed by decay.-Trees are usually felled in winter, when vegetation is at rest, though it has been asserted that if they are felled when in full growth, and the bark removed, the drying is more thorough. The wood, at whatever time the tree may be cut, contains a large

before varnishing or oiling it. Staining is often resorted to, and expensive colored woods are imitated in a manner to deceive all but experts. The number of woods esteemed for their odor is few, sandal wood and camphor wood being the principal. The ornamental woods, or fancy woods as they are termed in trade, are often very costly, and are used in the form of thin slices or veneer, glued to a base of common wood. (See VENEER.) A few years ago a company undertook the manufacture of wood hangings, to be used as a substitute for paper hangings; the wood was sliced off in a continuous roll, as thin as ordinary wall paper, having been first impregnated with glycerine to prevent it from becoming brittle. -One of the principal uses to which wood of nearly all kinds has hitherto been applied by all nations, and still is in many countries, is that of fuel. (See FUEL.) Different kinds of wood vary greatly in their value as fuel. In America the most valuable fire wood for warming apartments, and that used as a standard for comparison, is shell-bark hickory. Sugar | maple and beech, named in the order of their value, though very nearly equal, are also very valuable woods for fuel, forming bright solid coals. Among the special uses for which par- | ticular woods are peculiarly adapted, there is none more striking than that of boxwood for engravings, for which no substitute approaching it in all requisites has been found; in the qualities of hardness and evenness of texture, allowing of the cutting of lines so delicate that they can only be seen by a strong magnifier, it has no equal. Elm is preferred to all other woods for wagon hubs. The locust, while it makes the most durable of gate and fence posts, is the most valued wood for making the treenails used in ship building; it is not only used largely in this country, but large quantities are annually exported for the purpose. For oars ash is used almost exclusively; and for gun stocks, walnut. In the articles upon the different trees in this Cyclopædia the special uses to which their wood is adapted are mentioned; and the following list presents the woods in most common use for the purposes named:

Building-Ship building: cedar, pine (deals), fir. larch, elm, oak, locust, teak. Wet constructions (as piles, foundations, flumes, &c.): elm, alder, beech, oak, plane tree, white cedar, and palmetto for wharves. House carpentry: pine, oak, whitewood, chestnut, ash, spruce, sycamore. Machinery and millwork-Frames: ash, beech, birch, pine, elm, mahogany, oak. Rollers, &c.: box, lignum vitæ, mahogany, service tree. Teeth of wheels: crab tree, hornbeam, locust, service tree. Foundery patterns: alder, pine,

mahogany.

Furniture.-Common: beech, birch, cedar, cherry, pine, whitewood. Best furniture: Amboyna, black ebony, cherry, mahogany, maple, oak, rosewood, satin wood, sandal wood, chestnut, cedar, tulip wood, walnut, zebra wood, ebony.

The better known woods are classified according to the properties for which they are most valued as follows:

Elasticity and toughness.-Beech, elm, lignum vitæ, oak, walnut, hornbeam.

Even grain (for carving or engraving).-Pear, pine, box, lime tree.

Durability.-In dry works: cedar, oak, poplar, yellow

pine, chestnut. Exposed to weather: larch, locust.

Coloring matters.-Red: Brazil, braziletto, camwood, logwood, Nicaragua, red sanders, sapan wood. Green: green ebony. Yellow: fustic, Zante.

Scent.-Camphor wood, cedar, rosewood, sandal wood, satin wood, sassafras.

For the resistance to strain of different woods, see STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.-See "Timber and Timber Trees," by Thomas Laslett, timber inspector to the admiralty of Great Britain (London, 1875).

WOOD, the name of five counties in the United States. I. A N. W. county of West Virginia, separated from Ohio by the Ohio river, and drained by the Little Kanawha; area, about 400 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 11,046, of whom 713 were colored. The surface is hilly and the soil fertile. Iron ore and bituminous coal are found. It is intersected by the Parkersburg branch of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad. The chief productions in 1870 were 68,190 bushels of wheat, 5,929 of rye, 327,506 of Indian corn, 80,839 of oats, 138,239 of potatoes, 215,576 lbs. of butter, 24,830 of wool, 21,890 of tobacco, and 5,578 tons of hay. There were 2,745 horses, 2,763 milch cows, 3,410 other cattle, 10,419 sheep, and 6,206 swine; 1 manufactory of boots and shoes, 1 of cars, 22 of cooperage, 3 of furniture, 2 of stoves, &c., 8 of rectified coal oil, 1 flour mill, 1 planing mill, and 5 saw mills. Capital, Parkersburg. II. A N. E. county of Texas, bounded S. W. by the Sabine river; area, 840 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 6,894, of whom 1,247 were colored. The surface is undulating or level, and diversified by prairie and woodland, and the soil is very fertile. The chief productions in 1870 were 1,295 bushels of wheat, 201,547 of Indian corn, 33,033 of sweet potatoes, 11,922 lbs. of butter, and 3,919 bales of cotton. There were 2,226 horses, 3,396 milch cows, 8,693 other cattle, 2,576 sheep, 20,155 swine, and 12 saw mills. Capital, Quitman. III. A N. W. county of Ohio, bounded N. W. by the Maumee river, and drained by the Portage and its branches; area, 590 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 24,596. The surface is level, in some places swampy, and the soil is very fertile. A heavy growth of timber covers a large portion of the county. It is intersected by the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern and the Cincinnati, Hamilton, and Dayton railroads. The chief productions in 1870 were 256,545 bushels of wheat, 309,272 of Indian corn, 232,364 of oats, 131,600 of potatoes, 562,808 lbs. of butter, 126,064 of wool, and 28,579 tons of hay. There were 6,982 horses, 7,000 milch cows, 8,448 other cattle, 33,035 sheep, and 15,749 swine; 7 manufactories of carriages and wagons, 5 of wooden ware, 5 flour mills, and 33 saw mills. Capital, Bowling Green. IV. A cen

consin and Yellow rivers and their branches;