greatest numbers are found near the sources of the Chippewa and St. Croix rivers, the whole surface being studded with them, so that in some districts it would be difficult to travel 5 m. without finding a lake. A kind of wild rice (zizania aquatica) grows in the shallow waters, affording sustenance to innumerable water birds. The principal lakes are Winnebago, the largest, St. Croix, Pepin, Poygan, Pewaukee, Geneva, Green, Koshkonong, and the Four Lakes.-The geology of the state is simple, the series of rocks extending from the Laurentian to the Devonian. central portion of the state there is a large In the north area of archæan (azoic) rocks, having an extreme length E. and W. of nearly 240 m., and a breadth N. and S. of 160 m. are metamorphic in origin, and consist chiefly These rocks of granite, gneiss, syenite, diorite, and other hornblendic and allied rocks, quartzite, porphyrite, and a variety of schists and slates. The falls and rapids of the St. Croix, Chippewa, Black, Wisconsin, Wolf, Peshtigo, Menomonee, Montreal, and other rivers are due to the unequal hardness of these rocks. Besides the main area, there are in the south central part of the state outcrops of limited extent entirely surrounded by later formations, through which they project. The greater part of the archæan rocks of the state are regarded as belonging to the Laurentian period, though the Huronian are well developed. The unconformability of the two has been demonstrated, but their boundaries have not yet been satisfactorily traced at all points. To the latter period belongs the Penokee Iron range, which abounds in magnetic iron not yet worked. Similar iron deposits also occur on the Menomonee river and at Black River Falls. The copper-bearing series is found in Ashland, Bayfield, Douglas, Burnett, and Polk cos., and contains copper, but to what extent is not yet fully ascertained. Resting unconformably upon the archæan rocks is the Potsdam sandstone, forming a belt on almost every side from 10 to 60 m. in breadth. The general form of the sandstone district is that of a crescent, its horns on the Menomonee and St. Croix rivers, and its greatest breadth in the region of the Wisconsin river, near the middle of the state. The sand is generally pure, frequently suitable for the manufacture of glass. It often contains calcareous beds with fossil remains of a very ancient fauna; the decay of these beds mingling with the sand renders the soil fertile. This rock often forms bold cliffs and prominent peaks. The strata present ripple marks, cross laminations, and other evidences of deposition in shallow water. Potsdam sandstone is a heavy deposit of limeNext above the stone, locally known as the lower magnesian limestone; it contains copper ores in a few places, and also lead. This is succeeded by the upper sandstone, having many of the characteristics of the Potsdam, upon which are the blue and Galena limestones (or dolomites) of 681 which are found, in the S. W. part of the state the Trenton period, chiefly in the latter of and adjoining portions of Iowa and Illinois, the fissures containing deposits of lead, zinc, and copper ores. In this district, though yielding large quantities of lead, the soil is rich and productive. These mines were first discovered by Le Sueur in 1700, but attracted little attention till 1826, from which time the quantity of lead produced increased rapidly till about 1845, since which it has declined. Upon the Galena limestone rest the blue and green shales upon these at Iron Ridge, Hartford, and other and limestones of the Cincinnati group, and points in eastern Wisconsin, rest the Clinton iron ore beds, which attain at the first named ing of regular horizontal beds, which are explace the unusual thickness of 25 ft., consisttensively mined with the very greatest facility. Above this, and forming the surface rock over Niagara limestone, which is highly magnesian, a large area in the E. part of the state, is the and contains some of the purest stratified dolomites known. It affords excellent building material and quicklime of the first quality. Near Milwaukee, covering a limited space, cement stone, from the hydraulic properties occurs a rock now known as the Milwaukee which it has recently been shown to possess in a high degree. It belongs to the Hamilton period of the Devonian age. portions lying S. and E. of the Fox and lower district of Wisconsin includes nearly all those The limestone the Mississippi and W. of Green bay. All Wisconsin rivers, with considerable tracts along these rocks are older than those of the coal formation; hence no coal is found in this state. With the exception of the lead region, and the counties along the Mississippi river, the state is covered with a heavy deposit of clay, sand, gravel, and bowlders or "drift;" and it is generally this deposit rather than the underlying rocks that gives character to the soil. Among the pebbles masses of native copper are often found, associated with silver, clearly showing that this drift had its origin at the north. The drift, in a modified form, furnishes the clay from which cream-colored bricks are made, of great beauty and durability. A geological survey of the state is in progress; a full report is most important mineral product of the state, now (1876) in preparation.-Lead ore is the found chiefly in the counties of Grant, Lafayette, and Iowa; it is mostly the sulphuret (galena), though the carbonate (called white mineral) often occurs. in great quantities and of easy access at Iron Iron ores are found Ridge in Dodge co., at Ironton in Sauk co., the Penokee Iron range, in Ashland co., near at the Black river falls in Jackson co., and in Lake Superior. Magnetic ores also occur in the archæan region in the vicinity of the Menomonee river, in the N. E. part of the state. The ore has been smelted only at Iron Ridge, Ironton, and Black River Falls. Native copper is found in limited quantities in the N. part of the state; and copper ores have been discovered in fissures in Iowa and Crawford counties. Two ores of zinc, associated with the lead, have been smelted at Mineral Point. Limestone suitable for polishing (or marble) has been found; the drift affords clay suitable for the coarser wares and for brick; beds of peat and of shell marl occur in the marshes and beds of ancient lakes. Carnelians and agates are picked up among the pebbles of the lake shores, and are found associated with the trap rocks.-The mean annual temperature of the southern and more settled portion of the state is 46° F.; mean temperature of winter, 20°; of spring and autumn, 47°; and of summer, 72°. The waters of Lake Michigan materially affect the temperature of the counties along its shores, moderating both the excessive heat of summer and the cold of winter; and hence the temperature of January at Milwaukee is found on the Mississippi river half a degree of latitude further S., and that of July at St. Paul, 2° further N. The N. part of this lake only is covered with ice in winter, which never reaches as far S. as Milwaukee. The Milwaukee river remains closed on an average about 100 days, from the end of November to the middle of March. Snow always falls in the north before the occurrence of heavy frosts, protecting the ground and the roots of plants from freezing, and accelerating the growth of vegetation in the spring. In the south snow often lies to the depth of 12 to 18 in., but some winters pass almost without snow. The prevailing winds of spring are from N. E.; of summer, S. W.; of autumn and winter, W. The winters are cold, mostly uniform, with many clear dry days; the springs are backward, the summers short and hot, the autumns mild and almost always pleasant. The annual quantity of rain and melted snow is about 32 in. The barometer varies in its extremes from 28 to a little above 30 in., the mean being about 29.5 in.-The fauna of Wisconsin embraces the elk, deer, bear, beaver, fisher, wolf, otter, wild cat, porcupine, striped gopher, bat, mole, squirrel, pouched rat, &c. The buffalo, wild turkey, and some other species are extinct. The larger birds are the golden and bald eagles, great white owl, quail, partridge; the spruce, willow, prairie, and sharptailed grouse woodcock, wild goose, ducks in great numbers and varieties, pelican, loon, &c. Pigeons are abundant. Great quantities of fish are annually caught in Lakes Superior and Michigan, as well as in the smaller lakes and rivers; among these the most important are the white fish, trout, siskiwit, muskallonge, pickerel, and perch; the most curious are the billfish and the spoonbill sturgeon. The flora of Wisconsin embraces about 150 species of compound flowering plants (sunflowers, &c.), which formerly occurred so abundantly in the prairies and open districts as often to give a yellow hue to the landscape in the latter part of the flowering season. Nearly all the N. half of the state abounds in pine, balsam, hemlock, and other cone-bearing evergreen trees, of which the lofty white pine is the most common. The great prairies of Illinois extend into several of the southern counties of Wisconsin, between which and the heavily timbered districts is a region of openings, in which the bur oak (quercus macrocarpa) chiefly abounds. A line drawn from Racine on the W. shore of Lake Michigan in a N. W. direction will mark the boundaries between the openings and the heavily timbered lands. The red oak (Q. rubra) is the only species of oak that extends as far N. as the shores of Lake Superior.-The ancient earthworks, so abundant in the western states, assume in Wisconsin imitative forms, being intended to represent the human figure, or that of some of the more familiar animals. These are usually combined and associated with circular mounds and ridges running in straight or curved lines. The most important and best known are those at Aztalan in Jefferson co., where a space of 17 acres is enclosed by a wall of earth and burnt clay (not proper brick), supported at regular intervals by mounds or buttresses. Fragments of rude pottery are often found, with arrow heads of flint, and stone axes, pipes, &c.-Wisconsin is in the front rank of agricultural states. Agriculture is encouraged by annual legislative appropriations to the state agricultural society, and to each of the county societies. According to the federal census of 1870, the state contained 11,715,321 acres of land in farms, of which 5,899,343 were improved, 3,437,442 woodland, and 2,378,536 other unimproved land. The total number of farms was 102,904, and the average size 114 acres. There were 10,955 containing between 10 and 20 acres, 40,064 between 20 and 60, 30,060 between 50 and 100, 15,776 between 100 and 500, 112 between 500 and 1,000, and 32 over 1,000. The cash value of farms was $300,414,064, and of farming implements and machinery $14,239,364. The total estimated value of farm productions, including betterments and additions to stock, was $78,027,032; value of orchard products, $819,268; of produce of market gardens, $226,665; of forest products, $1,327,618; of animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter, $11,914,643; of all live stock, $45,310,882. According to the United States department of agriculture, the principal crops in 1873 were: INDUSTRIES. Lumber, pianed... Machinery, not specified.. 66 woollen.. cotton and Machinery, railroad and repairing.. and boilers. Saddlery and harness. The number of acres planted with the leading crops in 1875, as returned by the state assessors (five counties not reported), was: wheat, 1,539,008; oats, 766,343; Indian corn, 866,081; barley, 117,020; rye, 97,286; hops, 9,720; tobacco, 4,399; flax, 6,224. There were 291,815 horses, valued at $12,374,928; 6,592 mules and asses, $304,839; 805,881 neat cattle, $8,979,158; 1,025,990 sheep and lambs, $1,640,967; and 462,300 swine, $1,188,564. The production of wool in 1870 was 4,090,670 lbs., from 1,069,282 sheep; butter, 22,473,036 lbs., from 308,377 cows; cheese (on farms), 1,591,798 lbs.; flax, 497,398 lbs.; maple sugar, 507,192 lbs.; honey, 299,341 lbs.; sorghum molasses, 74,478 gallons. Commissioners have been appointed to stock the waters of the state with fish, and a hatching house has been erected.In 1870 there were 7,013 manufacturing estab- Tobacco, cigars lishments, having 926 steam engines of 30,509 horse power, and 1,288 water wheels of 33,714 horse power, and employing 43,910 hands, of whom 40,296 were males above 16, 2,114 females above 15, and 1,500 youth. The capital invested amounted to $41,981,872; wages paid during the year, $13,575,642; value of materials used, $45,851,266; of products, $77,214,326. The leading industries were: Hands em ments. ployed. Capital. Value of products. 82 1,887 $1,494,700 $2,893,428 753 2,352 1,082,268 2,271,425 127,250 410,227 509,626 ware Tobacco and cigars.. 66 king. Wooden ware.. The products of mining were valued at $510,982, including iron worth $22,000, lead $369,067, peat $750, stone $106,925, and zine $12,240. The total production of lead ore from of zinc ore obtained in the lead region of Wis1862 to 1873 was 163,422,672 lbs. The amount consin, Iowa, and Illinois from 1860 to 1873 inclusive was 155,302,150 lbs., most of it being the production of Wisconsin. The yield amounted to 25,921,785 lbs. in 1871, 43,278,358 in 1872, and 33,603,570 in 1873. manufacture of lumber is an important indusThe try, there being in the state a capacity for producing about 1,500,000,000 ft. annually. Besides an immense quantity of shingles, there were made 983,631,402 ft. of lumber in 1874, and 1,097,443,681 in 1875. hand on Jan. 1, 1876, 268,640,309 ft. of lumber. There were on and 279,336,000 ft. of logs.-Wisconsin had 20 1860, 1,010 in 1865, 1,525 in 1870, and 2,565 m. of railroad in 1850, 187 in 1855, 905 in in 1876. A general supervision over the railroads of the state is exercised by a state commissioner, who receives reports from the companies and makes reports to the legislature. The railroads lying wholly or partly within the 835 2,108,150 1,790,273 state in 1876 were as follows: 59 191 79 1,133 485 2,184 54 177 456,050 250 717 Cooperage. products... 188 581 2,031 Iron, forged and rolled. 1 642 pigs.... 66 castings. Lead, pig.. Leather, tanned. 85 577 66 curried.. 66 dressed skins.. Lime. Liquors, distilled. malt.. 176 The Fox and Wisconsin rivers are connected | by the Portage canal, which extends through Portage City, about one mile. Important improvements by the national government in these rivers have been in progress for several years, by means of which and the construction of a ship canal it is contemplated to open a channel for large vessels between the Mississippi river and Lake Michigan. The United States customs district of Milwaukee includes all the shores, harbors, and waters of Wisconsin bordering on Lake Michigan. Milwaukee is the port of entry, and De Pere, Green Bay, Kenosha, Racine, and Sheboygan are ports of delivery. La Crosse is a port of delivery in the district of Louisiana. The foreign commerce of Milwaukee is considerable, and the domestic trade is very extensive. (See MILWAUKEE.) During the year ending June 30, 1875, the domestic exports to foreign countries amounted to $1,390,179, including 1,233,483 bushels of wheat, valued at $1,351,884. The imports were valued at $56,646. In the foreign trade 3 vessels of 878 tons entered, and 9 vessels of 2,745 tons cleared. In the coastwise trade 7,230 vessels of 2,812,493 tons entered, and 7,261 of 2,798,208 tons cleared. The number of vessels belonging to the port was 342, of 62,157 tons, of which 276 were sailing vessels and 66 steamers. The number of national banks in operation at the close of 1875 was 42, having a paid-in capital of $3,550,000 and an outstanding circulation of $2,914,329.-The constitution gives the right of suffrage to male citizens and persons who have declared their intention to become citizens, who are 21 years of age and have resided in the state one year. The legislative power is vested in a senate of 33 members chosen for two years, and an assembly of 100 members elected annually. Each member receives $350 a year and 10 cts. a mile for travel to and from the capital. In case of an extra session of the legislature, no additional compensation is al Wausau lowed. The legislature meets annually on the second Wednesday in January. The chief executive and administrative officers are the governor, annual salary $5,000; lieutenant governor, who acts as president of the senate, $1,000; secretary of state, who is ex officio auditor, $5,000; treasurer, $5,000; attorney general, $3,000; and state superintendent of education, $1,200 and certain allowances. The salaries of the secretary of state, treasurer, and attorney general, as given (previously $1,200, $1,400, and $2,000, with fees, respectively), were fixed by act of 1876, to take effect in 1877. All are elected for two years. The state election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. Other state officers are three commissioners of school and university lands, one of railroads, four of fish and fisheries, three of the state prison, and a state board of charities and reform composed of five members. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, 13 circuit courts, courts of probate, and justices of the peace. The supreme court consists of a chief and two associate justices. It has in general only appellate jurisdiction. Two terms are held annually at Madison. The circuit courts have general original jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters, and appellate jurisdiction over all inferior courts. Both they and the supreme court issue writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, injunction, quo warranto, and certiorari. Judges of the supreme and circuit courts are elected by the people for six years. By a recent law, not applicable to those then in office, the salaries of the former were increased from $4,000 to $5,000 a year, and of the latter from $2,500 to $3,000. A circuit court must be held at least twice a year in each county. A judge of probate is elected by the people in each county for four years; justices of the peace are elected by the people for two years in the several cities, towns, and villages. United States courts are held at Milwaukee (semi-an nually) and Oshkosh (annually) in the eastern | district, and at Madison (semi-annually) and La Crosse (annually) in the western district. Wisconsin is represented in congress by two senators and eight representatives, and has therefore ten votes in the electoral college. The constitution requires a state census to be taken every ten years; the latest one was in 1875.-On Sept. 30, 1875, the total state debt amounted to $2,252,057, viz.: bonds outstanding, $14,000; due to the school fund, $1,559,700; university fund, $111,000; agricultural college fund, $51,600; normal school fund, $515,700; currency certificates, $57. The total receipts on account of the general fund during the year were $1,136,483, and the disbursements $1,260,168. The chief sources of revenue were: state tax, $592,070; tax on railroad companies, $436,414; on insurance companies, $67,859. Among the items of expenditure were: interest on state debt, $157,820; legislature, $86,645; and state institutions, $565,030. The total valuation of property, as determined by the state board of assessments, with the amount and rate of state taxes, has been as follows: formed in the prison on account of the state, the chief industries being the manufacture of chairs, wagons, boots and shoes, clothing, and stone work. The institution is not self-sustaining. The receipts from labor, &c., in 1875 amounted to about $53,000; the total disbursements were about $100,000; the state appropriation was $46,841. A school is maintained in the prison, which also has a library. The present site of the prison is too distant from sources of supply and from a market for the articles manufactured. In 1875 a resolution was passed by the legislature providing for the appointment of a commission to consider the expediency of a change, to recommend a more suitable site, and to report to the next legislature. It is recommended that the present prison be transformed into an institution for the incurable insane, of whom about 500 are confined in the poorhouses and jails. The industrial school for boys was opened at Waukesha in 1860, where it has a farm of 233 acres, mostly cultivated. In 1875 there was a total of 412 and an average of 301 inmates. The ordinary expenses of the institution were about $45,000. Boys between the ages of 10 and 16 years are committed to this institution by the courts and magistrates, for vagrancy and other minor offences. The soldiers' orphan home was organized as a state institution and opened in Madison in 1866. It continued in successful operation, with an average annual attendance of about 200, till 1874, when the legislature authorized the trustees to prepare for closing it. The total number of orphans who have received its benefits exceeds 600; the total cost to the state for the purchase of buildings and maintenance has been about $342,000. In 1875 the legislature authorized the transfer of the buildings and grounds to the regents of the state university for a medical college. In 1875 the legislature appropriated $5,000, to be distributed among the following private charitable institutions, which are thereby brought under the supervision of the state board of charities and reform: Cadle home, in Green Bay; St. Luke's hospital, in Racine; and St. Rose orphan asylum, St. Joseph orphan asylum, Milwaukee orphan association, St. Emilian asylum, and home for the friendless, in Milwaukee. The northwestern branch of the national asylum for disabled soldiers is about 3 m. from Milwaukee, where it has a farm of 425 acres and a brick building with accommodations for 700 or 800 inmates. The average number of inmates in 1875 was 642.-The general management of the public schools is vested in a state superintendent, 64 county superintendents, 27 city superintendents, and a school board in each district. The state and county superintendents hold office for two years, and the district officers for three years. In each independent city there is a board of education, and the larger cities have each a superintendent, who in some cases is also prin The total amount of property exempt from taxation was $14,174,721, including $1,655,349 common school, $3,951,783 church, and $4,301,753 railroad property.-The general supervision of the charitable and correctional institutions is vested in a state board of charities and reform, consisting of five members appointed for five years by the governor. The -institute for the blind, at Janesville, was opened in 1850, and in 1875 had a total of 82 and an average of 59 students. The current expenses amounted to about $18,000. The institute for the deaf and dumb, at Delavan, opened in 1852, had in 1875 a total of 180 and an average of 132 pupils; the ordinary expenses of the institution were about $34,000. The state hospital for the insane, opened in 1860, is at Madison, and the northern hospital for the insane, opened in 1873, at Oshkosh. In 1875 there were in the former a total of 507 and an average of 364 inmates, and in the latter a total of 351 and an average of 257. The current expenses of the former were $63,500, and of the latter nearly $55,000. According to the federal census of 1870, there were in the state 409 blind, 459 deaf and dumb, 846 insane, and 560 idiotic. According to the returns of the state census of 1875, the numbers of these classes were blind, 503; deaf and dumb, 720; insane, 1,422. The state prison is at Waupun. The total number of convicts in 1875 was 357; average number, 240. Labor is per |