the higher latitudes, and with the juices of other fruits than the grape, it has been more common to add to the must a quantity of sugar, especially of late years starch sugar; this may serve to consume all the ferment, generating of course more alcohol, and perhaps still leaving an excess of sugar; so that a wine thus treated is always stronger than otherwise, and may also be sweet. If, after the sugar is exhausted, there is still a portion of ferment remaining in the wine, or if fermentation is purposely arrested while such is the case, then this ferment is liable, and often for a long time, to set up the acetous fermentation, or change of the alcohol to vinegar, whenever the conditions favoring this change occur; these conditions are access of air to the wine, and the rather high temperature required to cause the action of oxygen upon the alcohol. Wine which begins in this way to acetify is said to be "pricked." The addition of more sugar in such case, often resorted to with a view of arresting this change, is very apt to hasten the decomposition. The preferable plan is to remove the wine immediately to a very cool place, as a cellar, and to leave it at rest for some time with limited access of air. Mulder calculates that 198 parts by weight of grape sugar, no loss being supposed, will give 92 parts of alcohol, or nearly in the proportion of one part of the latter to two of the former. .But besides the varying percentage of sugar in the must, the facts that a portion of it may continue unchanged, and that during fermentation more alcohol than water is likely to evaporate, render it impracticable to predict in given cases what proportion of alcohol the wines produced shall contain. The exciting and intoxicating qualities of wines result, of course, from the presence and amount of the alcohol developed in them.-From such causes as the mixture of the perfect fruit with more or less that is unripe or decayed, the fluctuations of temperature that may attend the fermenting process, &c., wines even from the same variety of vine, and in different years from the same vintage, may be exceedingly dissimilar; and as a rule the composition of wines, even if pure, is far less subject to precise knowledge or determination beforehand than is that of the grape juice. While alcohol is forming, some of the components of the juice entirely or nearly disappear in the froth or sediment, and others are chemically changed, resulting in the production of new compounds. Since the juice of all grapes is colorless, it follows that when the expressed juice, separated wholly from the pulp and skins, is fermented alone, the wine will be perfectly colorless, or that known as "white," no matter what may have been the color of the grapes used. White wines will necessarily at the same time almost or wholly lack tannic acid, which is present in the skins. But if the crushed grapes and juice be left to ferment for a time together, however light the former, the liquid will acquire some color (at the least a tinge of amber); and the color will be deeper, to the very dark red of such wines as port, according as the skins of the grapes were of darker color, or as the time during which they remain in the fermenting juice is prolonged. Thus, natural color in wines is always that extracted from the skins of the grapes in the vat, and is not, as often supposed, due to the choice of purple grapes. But the presence of color will, for the like reason, always be attended with that of tannic acid, so that in some degree the colored wine will be rough or astringent; and the degree of astringency due to this cause will usually be proportional to the depth of color, a fact of which port wine also affords a marked instance. Alumina is said to be detected chiefly in the red wines, and in some of them also a trace of iron. The other free acids are such as named in stating the composition of the juice, tartaric being generally the most abundant; in soured wines, including those that have become musty or hurt with age, acetic acid is also present. Wines bottled while the process of fermentation is going on will also contain carbonic acid gas, and will in consequence, if drunk immediately on uncorking, have the quality of "briskness;" where the quantity of the gas is considerable, such wines sparkle when agitated in the light, and they are then distinguished as "sparkling," while those which do not sparkle are distinguished as "still." Wines always contain less of tartaric acid than the grape juice they are obtained from, owing to the circumstance that during the generation of alcohol the tartrates in the juice, and mainly the tartrate of potash, become insoluble and are thrown down; the considerable masses of nearly pure tartrate of potash thus found in the bottom of the vat or cask are an important source of that salt in commerce, and pass under the name of wine stone, crude tartar, or argol; the slight further deposition that may take place after bottling is known as "crust" or "beeswing." That quality in wines which in liquids generally would be known as flavor, must depend mainly in the former on the acids, sugar, and alcohol; but the fragrance and an important part of the actual flavor of wines are due to the presence of some peculiar volatile matter, the effect of which is technically distinguished from the simple flavor, and which is known as the perfume or bouquet of the wine. The nature of this odoriferous principle is not satisfactorily known. According to Fauré, it is a viscid substance diffused in the liquor, which he terms oenanthine. According to Liebig and to Winckler, it appears rather to be or to contain a peculiar ether, or a volatile fragrant acid; to the former the name of oenanthic ether has been given. Water is more abundant in wines made in wet seasons, and in the wine from new vineyards or young vines; of course also in wine from any grape in which the proportion of sugar is very small. Weak wines are more prone to become sour; and it was to avoid this result that the ancients resorted to various means of thickening their wines; the modern practice of increasing the strength by adding starch sugar, and if need be yeast also, is preferable in every way, unless the increased percentage of alcohol be considered the more objectionable result.-The quantity of alcohol in different wines, and in different vintages of those of the same kind, and also the modes by which it is to be ascertained, have received considerable attention from analytical chemists; but since the specific gravity of wines depends not merely, as in brandy or dilute alcohol, on the proportions of alcohol and water, but also on the other solid matters contained in them, no means have been devised less tedious than the actual distillation of the spirit from a portion of the wine, and the determining afterward of the proportion it must have formed in the whole. The analyses of the same wines by different chemists, naturally enough, afford considerable diversity of results; and remembering that no analysis can determine what the percentage of alcohol is to be in a wine to which brandy or spirit is added in variable quantities, or in any quantity by the importer and vender, the table furnished by Brande in 1811-'13 may still with little alteration be received as affording a fair indication of the average alcoholic strength of wines most commonly known; a few of these are given in the following table: The analyses of Christison assign lower proportions than the above for almost all wines, and especially the stronger, reckoning port, for example, at an average of about 16-2. Mulder, in summing up on the subject, says: "Port is the richest in alcohol, Madeira ranks next. Liqueur wines, as a rule, are stronger than red wines. Jurançon, Lachrymæ Christi, Benicarlo, and Sauterne contain from 12 to 15 of alcohol, or more. Red French wines contain less, from 9 to 14 per cent.; good Bordeaux, 9 to 11; champagne, 10 to 11; and Rhine wine, 6 to 12, generally 9 to 10 per cent."-The geographical range of the grape is very extensive. In the eastern hemisphere, excepting perhaps the colder eastern coast and central regions of Asia, it is from about lat. 54° N. to 45° S. The eastern portion of the American continent being also colder than its western shores, the limit of successful vine culture in the former is probably about lat. 45° N. As an illustration of the effect of climate and situation, the muscat grape matures on the Rhine only so far as to be fit for the table; while in the south of France it furnishes the rich Frontignan, Rivesaltes, and other sweet wines. So, the same variety of grape which on the Rhine yields the well known Hochheimer, near Lisbon affords the almost wholly different Bucellas, at the Cape the Cape hock, and formerly yielded at Madeira the delicious, Sercial, neither of which latter bears any distinct resemblance to the true Rhenish. Meyen declares that grapes of the same variety, if cultivated at different elevations upon the side of a mountain, yield essentially different wines. It is not latitude, but the course of the isothermal lines, that so far as temperature is concerned determines the fitness of the grape for wine making; but even within the same belt of equal temperatures, the predominance of cloudiness and humidity of the air is the condition, next to cold, the most unfavorable to the perfecting of the grape, as that of a generally clear sky and dry air is the most favorable. Thus, with the same latitude and a nearly similar temperature, good wines are produced on the Rhine between Coblentz and Düsseldorf, though from the grapes of Belgium and the south of England they cannot be had. But the influence of judicious cultivation and manufacture is doubtless among the most efficient of all. The celebrated Johannisberger wine is produced upon an elevation of 150 ft. above the Rhine and the country adjacent; but the Johannisberg estate and a few other estates near it belong to large proprietors, who bestow upon their business an amount of care and skill far exceeding that shown as a rule by the owners of the small surrounding vineyards; the result is a very great superiority in the wines produced by the former. The soils on which the best grapes grow are rather light and porous, and of the composition called calcareous. But it must not be forgotten that, as the grape contains considerable tartrate of potash, this base must be present in a more or less soluble condition. What are called feldspar soils, when of good physical character, are favorable for grape culture. Certain peculiar strong-smelling substances in the soil are likely to impart their unpleasant odor to the wine it produces, an example of which occurs in some lands in Germany in which the Stinkstein (a.variety of subcarbonate of lime) is present. The vine growers of France and Portugal are strongly averse to manuring their vines; and in the port district of the Alto Douro the practice is forbidden by law. But the German cultivators manure very freely, with no ill effect upon the quality of the wines, which in fact are generally esteemed for their bouquet. The manuring is practised every third or fourth, or up to the tenth year; fresh cow dung is used in some instances, but oftener strips of woollen previously soaked in liquid manure and dried; and the practice is more common with the red than the white grapes. Among the best of manures are the cuttings of the vine, applied as often as they are pruned, since these restore to the soil a portion of the alkalies abstracted by the vine and so necessary to the fruit. (See AMERICAN WINES, and the articles on the wines of Europe under the names of the different countries.)- Wines are obtained from the currant, gooseberry, raspberry, blackberry, and elderberry; and also from other parts of certain plants, as from the root of the parsnip and beet, the stem of the birch and cocoa palm, the leaves of the grape vine, and the spathe or sheath of the sagus vinifera and other palms.-See Jullien, Topographie de tous les vignobles connus (Paris, 1824, translated into English; new French ed., 1871); Redding, "History and Description of Modern Wines" (London, 1851), and "French Wines and Vineyards" (1860); Mulder, Chemie des Weins (Leipsic, 1856; translated by H. Bence Jones, London, 1859); Haraszthy, "Grape Culture, Wines, and Wine Making" (New York, 1862); Shaw, "The Wine and its Cellar" (London, 1864); Mohr, Der Weinstock und der Wein (Coblentz, 1864); Sheen, "Wines and other fermented Liquors, from the Earliest Ages to the present Time" (London, 1864); Husmann, "Cultivation of the Native Grape and Manufacture of American Wines" (New York, 1866); Pasteur, Le chauffage du vin (Paris, 1867); Heckler, Weinbaulehre (Frankfort, 1868); Guyot, Études des vignobles de France (Paris, 1868); Thudicum and Dupré, "Treatise on the Nature and Varieties of Wine" (London, 1872); Druitt, "Report on Cheap Wines" (London, 1873); and Vizetelly, "The Wines of the World Characterized and Classified" (London, 1875). and always in the evening. Fast days, experience meetings, anxious meetings, and camp meetings are all approved. The Winebrennerians have always been opposed to slavery and to the making and vending of ardent spirits. The government of the church consists of the local council in each congregation, district elderships or presbyteries meeting annually, and the general eldership, which meets triennially. The ministers are appointed to their stations by a committee of the annual elderships, which also holds the property (meeting houses, parsonages, &c.) of each society. They have a foreign and domestic missionary society, a book depository, and a printing establishment at Harrisburg, where a weekly paper, “The Church Advocate," and a Sunday school paper, "The Gem," are published. In 1873 there were 13 elderships and about 600 churches, 400 ministers, and 40,000 members. Mr. Winebrenner was for several years editor of the "Church Advocate," and in 1844, in connection with I. D. Rupp, published "The History of all the Religious Denominations in the United States." He also published a work on "Regeneration," a "Brief View of the Church of God," "The Reference and Pronouncing Testament," "Revival Hymn Book" (English and German), "The Seraphina" (a music book), a volume of "Practical and Doctrinal Sermons," and the "Church Hymn Book." WINES, Enoch Cobb, an American philanthropist, born in Hanover, N. J., Feb. 17, 1806. He graduated at Middlebury college in 1827, and taught school in St. Albans, Vt., Alexandria, Va., and Washington, D. C., in 1829 became teacher on board the United States ship Constellation, then taught in Princeton, N. J., WINEBRENNER, John, an American clergyman, Philadelphia, and Burlington, N. J. In 1849 born in Frederick co., Md., March 25, 1797, died he was ordained pastor of the Congregational in Harrisburg, Pa., Sept. 12, 1860. He was church at Cornwall, Vt., and in 1850_became originally a minister of the German Reformed pastor of the church at Easthampton, L. I. In church, having charge of four congregations in 1854 he was appointed professor of ancient and near Harrisburg, Pa.; but owing to a dif- languages in Washington college, Pa., and in ference of views in regard to revivals, he with- 1859 president of the city university of St. drew from that body, and in October, 1830, Louis. Since 1862, when he was appointed established a new denomination, called by him secretary of the New York prison association, the church of God, but commonly known as he has been actively engaged in prison reform. Winebrennerians. They hold that there are Through his efforts a national prison associathree positive ordinances of perpetual stand- tion was formed at Cincinnati in 1870, of ing baptism by immersion, the washing of which he became secretary. In 1871 he went feet, and the Lord's supper. Baptism, how-to Europe as a representative of the United ever, is not a necessity preceding church fellowship, faith in Christ being the door into the church. Feet washing is obligatory upon all Christians. This rite, as practised by the Winebrennerians, Dunkers, Mennonites, and some others, is based by its adherents upon the example and words of Jesus in John xiii.: "If I then, your Lord and master, have washed your feet, ye ought to wash one another's feet. For I have given you an example that ye should do as I have done to you. If ye know these things, happy are ye if ye do them." The Lord's supper should be frequently administered, to Christians only, in a sitting posture, States government to make arrangements for an international penitentiary congress, which met in London July 4, 1872, composed of representatives of 26 governments. It appointed a permanent international commission, of which Dr. Wines was chosen chairman, and which met at Brussels in 1874 and at Bruchsal in 1875, and has called a second international congress to meet at Stockholm in 1877. Besides several volumes of reports of the transactions of these bodies, and one on the prisons and reformatories of the United States and Canada, he has published "Two Years and a Half in the American Navy" (2 vols., Phila delphia, 1832), "Commentaries on the Laws | 27,317 of cheese, and 33,010 tons of hay. of the Ancient Hebrews" (New York, 1852), There were 10,116 horses, 1,023 milch cows, "Adam and Christ" (1858), &c. 16,124 other cattle, 24,767 sheep, and 19,354 WINKELRIED, Arnold Struth von, a Swiss pa- swine; 10 manufactories of agricultural imtriot, whose heroism decided the battle of Sem-plements, 8 of carriages and wagons, 3 of men's pach, July 9, 1386, in which a large Austrian clothing, 2 of cotton goods, 5 of iron castings, army was engaged against only 1,300 Swiss. 2 of machinery, 4 of paper, 4 of sash, doors, The latter had failed to penetrate the enemy's and blinds, and 12 flour mills. Capital, Rockline, when Winkelried, grasping all the Aus- ford. II. An E. county of Wisconsin, bounded trian pikes within his reach, buried them in E. by Lake Winnebago, and drained by Fox his body and bore them to the earth, while and Wolf rivers; area, about 450 sq. m.; pop. over him his companions rushed into the open- in 1870, 37,279; in 1875, 45,033. The surface ing and defeated the Austrians with terrible is level and the soil fertile. It has railroad slaughter. A monument to him was erected communication with Milwaukee. The chief at Stanz, canton of Unterwalden, in 1865. productions in 1870 were 745,512 bushels of See Liebenau, Arnold Winkelried, seine Zeit wheat, 190,897 of Indian corn, 364,143 of und seine That (Aarau, 1862), and Kleissner, oats, 87,366 of potatoes, 175,020 lbs. of hops, Die Quellen zur Sempacher Schlacht und die 135,648 of wool, 721,265 of butter, 99,387 of Winkelried-Sage (Göttingen, 1873). cheese, and 47,294 tons of hay. There were 6,103 horses, 7,911 milch cows, 7,797 other cattle, 37,507 sheep, and 7,822 swine; 4 manufactories of boots and shoes, 19 of carriages and wagons, 7 of furniture, 2 of hubs and wagon material, 6 of iron castings, 5 of machinery, 2 of matches, 1 of printing paper, 4 of sash, doors, and blinds, 1 of wooden ware, 2 of woollens, 21 flour mills, 2 tanneries, 3 currying establishments, 8 breweries, 7 planing mills, and 49 saw mills. Capital, Oshkosh. III. A N. county of Iowa, bordering on Minnesota; area, 432 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 1,562. The surface consists of rolling prairies, and the soil is fertile. The chief productions in 1870 were 23,914 bushels of wheat, 8,040 of Indian corn, 12,545 of oats, 17,305 lbs. of butter, and 3,351 tons of hay. There were 236 horses, 1,059 cattle, 518 sheep, and 411 swine. Capital, Forest City. DE. WINKIN DE WORDE. See WORDE, WYNKIN WINLOCK, Joseph, an American astronomer, born in Shelbyville, Ky., Feb. 6, 1826, died in Cambridge, Mass., June 11, 1875. He graduated at Shelby college, Ky., in 1845, and became professor of mathematics and astronomy there. In 1852 he removed to Cambridge, and became one of the computers of the "Nautical Almanac." In 1857 he was appointed professor of mathematics in the United States navy, and served at the naval observatory in Washington and the naval academy in Annapolis. In 1865 he became director of the observatory of Harvard college, and Phillips professor of astronomy. Besides his observatory work, he was twice director of expeditions to observe solar eclipses: that to Kentucky in August, 1869, and that to Spain in December, 1870. He made many improvements in the equipment of the observatory, which have since been adopted throughout the world. He died suddenly of apoplexy. WINN, a N. parish of Louisiana, bounded W. by Saline bayou and S. E. by Little river, and intersected by the Dugdemona; area, about 1,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 4,954, of whom 909 were colored; in 1875, 5,355, of whom 997 were colored. The surface is generally level and the soil fertile. There are numerous small lakes and ponds. The chief productions in 1870 were 87,540 bushels of Indian corn, 18,022 of sweet potatoes, 14,161 lbs. of butter, 3,576 of wool, 1,562 of rice, 1,482 of tobacco, and 2,680 bales of cotton. There were 985 horses, 6,940 cattle, 2,354 sheep, and 15,724 swine. Capital, Winfield. WINNEBAGO. I. A N. county of Illinois, bordering on Wisconsin, and drained by Rock and Pecatonica rivers; area, 508 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 29,301. The surface is mostly prairie and the soil is fertile. It has railroad communication with Chicago. The chief productions in 1870 were 411,074 bushels of wheat, 137,985 of rye, 1,237,406 of Indian corn, 868,903 of oats, 75,018 of barley, 266,272 of potatoes, 95,194 lbs. of wool, 640,827 of butter, WINNEBAGO, a lake of Wisconsin, the largest within the limits of the state, occupying parts of Calumet, Fond du Lac, and Winnebago counties. Its length is 28 m. N. and S., greatest width about 10 m.; area, about 212 sq. m. Its depth is variable, and it is navigable in most parts. Fond du Lac, Oshkosh, and other towns are on its shores, and there is water communication to Green bay and Lake Michigan by the Fox river, which is improved by dams and locks. A wall of rocks extends along the E. border for 15 m., reaching in some places hundreds of feet below the surface. WINNEBAGOES, a tribe of the Dakota family of North American Indians, calling themselves Hochungara, but styled by the Sioux Hotanke or Sturgeon; by the Hurons and Iroquois, Awentsiwaen; and by the Algonquins, Wennibegouk. The last term, meaning men from the fetid or salt water, was translated by the French Puants. With the Quappas and Tuteloes they apparently formed the van of the eastward Dakota migration, and were forced back to Green bay. They were then numerous and formidable, and ruled by terror over the neighboring Algonquin tribes. Soon after the French began to trade with the west, in the early part of the 17th century, a general alliance of tribes attacked the Winnebagoes. | and removed to Crow creek, Dakota, on the They were driven into one town, where want Missouri above Fort Randall. The place was and disease reduced them greatly, and 500 utterly unsuited to them, affording no means warriors perished. The Illinois, wishing to of livelihood and surrounded by wild Indians. relieve them, were treated with cruelty, and Although troops tried to keep them there, in retaliation nearly exterminated them, but deaths were so numerous from hostile Indians, the women and children were spared; and the famine, and disease, that 1,222 out of 1,985 Winnebagoes became a small tribe, but still who had been removed succeeded in reaching haughty and turbulent. They were faithful the Omaha reservation, where they appealed to the French, and served them in war, re- for shelter. In May, 1866, they were removed ceiving protection in return. They sided with to Winnebago, Nebraska, where all had to be the English during the revolution, and were begun again. In 1869 they were assigned to active in the Miami war, taking part in the the care of the Friends. The next year the attack on Fort Recovery in 1793. They made agent deposed their chiefs and installed 12 of peace after being defeated by Wayne. They his own selection. Chiefs are now elected. adhered to Tecumseh, and during the war of Lands were again allotted to such as wished 1812 sided with England, aiding to reduce to take up farms, and in 1874 they numbered Prairie du Chien in 1814. They were then in Nebraska 1,445, with farms, cottages, and estimated at 4,500. In 1820 they had 5 vil- stock, dressed like whites, and had three lages on Winnebago lake and 14 on Rock river. schools. On their removal from Minnesota They made a treaty of peace and friendship, 160, chiefly half-breeds, who had taken up land, June 3, 1816, but levied tribute on all whites remained, and these received each as his share who passed up Fox river; and English annui- of tribal funds $800; but many have lost this ties kept up a bad feeling. Treaties in 1826 and the land and joined the tribe in Nebraska. and 1827 fixed their boundaries, but their land The Winnebagoes left in Juneau, Adams, and contained rich mines, which some of the In- Wood counties, Wisconsin, were self-supportdians began to work and refused to sell. White ing. They numbered nearly 1,000. In the intrusion led to murders, for which Red Bird winter of 1873-4 most of these were removed and others were seized, tried, and convicted. to Nebraska, a smaller tract near the WinneIn 1829, for $30,000 in goods and a 30-year bago reservation of 128,000 acres being purannuity of $18,000, they under Heretshonsarp chased for them; but most of them left almost ceded land from the Wisconsin to Rock river. as soon as they reached it. Besides the early The Winnebago prophet supported the Sacs Catholic missions, later attempts were made in their hostility, and projects were formed by Catholics and Presbyterians, with very litfor their removal. The treaty of Fort Arm- tle permanent result. strong (September, 1832) ceded all their land south of the Wisconsin and Fox river, 2,530,000 acres, the United States agreeing to give them a reservation on the Mississippi above the upper Iowa, pay $10,000 for 27 years, maintain schools, &c. They became unsettled and wasteful, and in 1837 made provision for a debt of $150,000 by ceding more land. In 1842 there were 756 at Turkey river, Iowa, their new home, with as many in Wisconsin, and smaller bands elsewhere. All had become lawless and roving. By the treaty of Washington in 1846, they surrendered their former reservation for 800,000 acres north of the St. Peters and $195,000. The site to which they were removed, above the Wataub west of the upper Mississippi, was not that promised, and was utterly unfit. They lost by disease and want, but were kept there by force. In 1853 they were removed to Crow river. Here schools were revived and attempts made to improve them; but by the treaty of Feb. 27, 1856, they were again moved to Blue Earth, Minnesota. Here they began to cultivate, houses were built, a school was well attended, and by a treaty in 1859 the land was to be allotted, 80 acres to a family, 40 to a single Several had taken up plots when the Sioux war broke out, and the people of Minnesota demanded the removal of the Winnebagoes. They were disarmed in April, 1863, man. WINNESHIEK, a N. E. county of Iowa, bordering on Minnesota, and intersected by Upper Iowa and Turkey rivers; area, 720 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 23,570. The surface is rolling, diversified by prairies and woodland, and the soil is fertile. The Milwaukee and St. Paul railroad traverses it. The chief productions in 1870 were 700,191 bushels of Indian corn, 822,400 of oats, 99,095 of barley, 77,525 of potatoes, 810,126 lbs. of butter, 42,233 of wool, and 42,246 tons of hay. There were 6,782 horses, 8,715 milch cows, 11,638 other cattle, 11,373 sheep, and 17,337 swine; 2 manufactories of agricultural implements, 9 of carriages and wagons, 1 of iron castings, 2 of machinery, 7 flour mills, 5 breweries, 4 saw mills, and 3 woollen mills. Capital, Decorah. WINNIPEG, a city, port of entry, and the capital of the province of Manitoba, Canada, on the W. bank of Red river and the N. bank of the Assiniboin, at their confluence, 50 m. by the course of the former above Lake Winnipeg, and 90 m. below the United States bounda ry, nearly 400 m. (direct) N. N. W. of St. Paul, Minn.; lat. 49° 52′ N., lon. 96° 58′ W.; pop. in 1875, about 7,000. It covers an area of 3 sq. m. The streets are well graded and provided with sidewalks. Water works and a system of sewerage are projected. The chief public buildings are the governor's residence, court house, city hall, post office, custom house, Mer |