WIND FLOWER. See ANEMONE. WINDHAM. I. The S. E. county of Vermont, bordering on Massachusetts, and separated from New Hampshire by the Connecticut river; area, 780 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 26,036. The surface is generally hilly, and in the W. part mountainous, and the soil is fertile. Granite of an excellent quality is very abundant. It is traversed by the Vermont Central and Connecticut River railroads. The chief productions in 1870 were 4,230 bushels of wheat, 185,675 of Indian corn, 163,122 of oats, 12,688 of barley, 353,836 of potatoes, 1,045,473 lbs. of butter, 92,095 of cheese, 233,772 of wool, 988,444 of maple sugar, 72,630 of tobacco, and 83,306 tons of hay. There were 4,818 horses, 6,685 milch cows, 13,266 other cattle, 42,440 sheep, and 3,946 swine. The whole number of manufactories was 278, having an aggregate capital of $1,413,452; value of products, $2,310,842. The most important were 2 of boots and shoes, 4 of children's carriages and sleds, 20 of carriages and wagons, 17 of furniture, 2 of hardware, 8 of machinery, 1 of organs, 2 of wrapping paper, 4 of woollens, 11 flour mills, 9 tanneries, 4 currying establishments, and 20 saw mills. Capital, Fayetteville. II. The N. E. county of Connecticut, bordering on Rhode Island and Massachusetts, and drained by the Quinebaug, Willimantic, Shetucket, and Natchaug rivers; area, 620 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 38,518. The surface is very much broken, and the soil along the streams is highly fertile, but poor in other parts. It is intersected by the Norwich and Worcester, the Hartford, Providence, and Fishkill, the New London Northern, and the New York and New England railroads. The chief productions in 1870 were 16,094 bushels of rye, 161,414 of Indian corn, 167,574 of oats, 22,109 of buckwheat, 297,431 of potatoes, 517,509 lbs. of butter, 375,696 of cheese, 36,526 of wool, 5,685 of tobacco, and 58,734 tons of hay. There were 3,238 horses, 10,064 milch cows, 11,018 other cattle, 10,176 sheep, and 5,978 swine. The whole number of manufactories was 424, having an aggregate capital of $7,996,259; value of products, $11,028,056. The most important were 3 of acids, 13 of boots and shoes, 5 of bricks, 14 of carriages and wagons, 13 of clothing, 35 of cotton goods, 1 of glass ware, 2 of iron castings, 13 of machinery, 3 of paper, 3 of shoddy, 3 of sewing silk and twist, 14 of woollens, 24 flour mills, and 22 saw mills. Capital, Brooklyn. WINDHAM, William, an English statesman, born in London, May 3, 1750, died there, June 3, 1810. He was educated at Eton, Glasgow, and Oxford, and began his political career by a speech at a meeting in Norwich in 1778, in which he denounced the war against the American colonies. He was a member of Dr. Johnson's literary club and a friend of Burke and Fox, and was returned to parliament for Norwich in the general election for 1784. In 1787 he was appointed one of the managers of the impeachment of Warren Hastings. He warm ly advocated war with France, and was secretary at war in Pitt's cabinet from 1794 to 1801. In 1802 he vehemently denounced the peace of Amiens. He entered the Grenville administration in 1806 as secretary for the war and colonial departments, retired from office with his colleagues in 1807, and thenceforth remained in opposition. His eloquence was of a very high order, and Macaulay characterized him as "the finest gentleman of the age." His speeches have been published (3 vols., London, 1812), with a life prefixed. His diary was edited by Mrs. H. Baring in 1866. WINDMILL, a building containing machinery driven by the action of wind upon a set of wings or sails. Windmills are of two kinds, one revolving in a vertical, the other in a horizontal plane. The principal parts of the machinery of a vertical windmill are: 1, an axis in the top of the building, inclined (as the impulse of the wind is very commonly exerted in a line descending at such an angle) to the horizontal at 10° or 15°, on which are the wings; 2, the wings, consisting of as many sail frames, with sails stretched on them, which, if four, are at right angles with each other, and that in all cases are mainly rectangular to the axis, their length being from 30 to 40 ft. each; 3, a large toothed wheel upon the horizontal axis already referred to, carried about with it by the action of the wind on the sails, and of course standing at the angle of 10° to 15° with the vertical, the teeth of which engage with those of a pinion upon-4, a truly vertical axis rising through the middle of the mill, and thus impart a movement of rotation to this, and (in case of grinding) to the upper millstone. The first named, or as it may be called horizontal axis, is supported at its innermost end near the centre of the base of a dome or cover surmounting the mill; while its opposite extremity is let through a perforation in one side of the dome, and projects far enough beyond to receive the ends of the long timbers, or "whips," to which the sails are affixed. The suddenly varying and often extreme pressure of the wind upon the wings renders it necessary that the supports of the horizontal axis, and all parts of the wings projecting from it, shall have great strength. Against the rim of the principal wheel upon this axis a brake can be brought to act, so as to stop the motion of the machinery. In the ordinary kind of wings, beginning at about six feet from the axis along each of the six whips, project on one or both sides of the whip a series of wooden pieces or staves, at right angles with the whip, usually growing shorter toward its extremity, and having their ends further joined by a continuous lath or strip of wood; the whole thus forms a sort of lattice, upon which the sail is to be stretched. The lattice and canvas are inclined to the line of the axis and of the wind at such an angle that, as in case of the obliquely set sails of vessels, the total force of the wind is resolved into components, a considerable one of which of the wings. The result is, that from whatever direction the wind may blow against the tower, it is always admitted by the outer boards to act on the wings most freely on that half of the side it strikes, on which the wings are turn takes effect in the direction at right angles to | the axis, and produces the revolution. But the different parts of the sail have not the same angle in respect to the line of the wind. The velocity of revolution of each wing increases from its inner to its outer end; and mathe-ing away. But with an equal area of the wings, matical considerations show that the inclination of the sail to the wind should increase as the velocity increases, the best effect being obtained when at different lengths along the wing the inclinations are about those here named: at the length of the wing from the centre, 70°; at 1, 71°; at 1, 72°; at 3, 74°; at, 77; at the end, 83°. Other authorities give the inclinations from 60° to 80°. The result is that the surfaces of the sails are not oblique planes, but curving, or rather warped outward, in going from the centre to the extremities. Mr. Smeaton found that the velocity of the extremity of the sails is often to that of the wind in a ratio greater than that of 2 to 1; and according to Euler, when the velocity is that of 2 to 1, the efficiency of the mechanism is greatest. When the tower or mill is of timber and small, it is so fixed upon a strong column or axis entering its base, which is also sufficiently elevated, that the whole tower can be turned around so as to bring the axis of the machine in a line with the wind, by means of a long lever projecting from it below. In the case of stone and all large and heavy towers, the dome only is turned, carrying the axis and sails with it into the required position, while the vertical wheel merely travels about the pinion, and the connection is not broken. The turning of the dome to the wind is effected in different ways: 1, by the employment of a toothed wheel engaging in a rack on its inner side, and turned by means of a so-called endless cord, by a man below working a winch; 2, by a method invented by Sir W. Cubitt, consisting of a set of small vanes, placed in an upright position upon a long arm projecting in the same line with the horizontal axis, and by their revolution turning a shaft and pinion, and acting upon teeth surrounding the exterior of the dome and moving it; 3, by the much more simple and quite as effective means of having a single large vane extending behind the axis, and with its plane vertical, so that it, and consequently the axis, shall always be in the direction of the wind.-In situations in which the great height of the vertical sails would be objectionable, the horizontal windmill is sometimes used. It has six or more wings, usually of plain boards, set upright the whole height of the tower, being attached to upper and lower disks or platforms, and the whole is turned by the force of the wind about a vertical axis at its middle part. If the wings are fixed in position, they are set obliquely to the direction in which the wind will strike them. Outside of the whole is then placed a screen or cylindrical arrangement of boards not intended to revolve, these boards being also set obliquely and in planes lying in opposite course to those the power of the horizontal is always much less than that of the vertical windmill. Sir David Brewster concludes that the ratio is no less than that of 1 to 3 or 4.-Mr. Smeaton found that the efficiency of the sails is greater as they are broader at the extremity than near the centre, up to but not beyond a greatest breadth equal to one third the length of the wing; that if the total area of sails exceed seven eighths of the area of the circle described by the wings in their revolution, the velocity is diminished; that the maximum of work is obtained when the velocity of the wings as loaded with the work performed is to that they would have without load as 2 to 3; and that when the work is a maximum, the velocity of the sails still varies nearly with that of the wind. The variations in the pressure of the wind being considerable, and sometimes sudden and extreme, it becomes desirable to provide for regulating the sails accordingly; and a large share of the more recent inventions in connection with windmills have this for their object. The old plan is attended with much trouble and delay; in it the canvas, by means of a rope to each wing, can be taken in or let out, or that of each wing is made in three portions controlled by separate ropes; in either case, the mill must be stopped, and a man must usually ascend the wings successively for the purpose. One of the inventions in connection with the improvement of windmills was patented in 1861 by Mr. A. Giraudat of New York. In this, all necessity of a turning dome and horizontal axis is simply obviated, while in fact the wind wheel can be conveniently erected above the roof of any building, its axis descending through the roof to machinery within; and this machinery can be of almost any sort requiring moderate or ordinary power; for one important application of it, the running of sewing machines, a patent was obtained in July, 1862. The wind wheel is constructed simply with four or eight horizontal arms, on which solid square or oblong sails (rather tables) are carried, and by the revolution of which the vertical axis supporting them, and the machinery connected with it, are directly turned. The sails swing on the arms so as to be brought down perpendicular to a wind striking them on one side, and lifted toward a horizontal position, so as to prove ineffective when it strikes them on the other. For regulating the velocity, each sail can slide in from the end of its arm to near the axis; and it is caused to slide one way or the other by the action of a heavier and of a lighter weight on parts of a sort of endless cord attached to it, and both meanwhile upheld by means of iron links at the ends of the respective arms. If the impulse of the goods, 13 of furniture, 4 of lime, 4 of machinery, 15 of saddlery and harness, 2 of shoe pegs, 2 of wooden ware, 12 of woollens, 1 blast furnace, 3 iron founderies, 12 flour mills, 8 tanneries, 6 currying establishments, and 30 saw mills. Capital, Woodstock. WINDSOR, a town of Hartford co., Connecticut, on the W. bank of the Connecticut river, between Hartford and Windsor Locks; pop. in 1870, 2,783. The town was one of the first settled in Connecticut. William Holmes, one of the settlers of Plymouth colony, with several associates, in October, 1633, erected a building on the banks of the Connecticut, just below the mouth of its tributary the Tunxis or Farmington, and fortified it strongly with palisades. It was built for and occupied as a "trading house," until the arrival of permanent settlers from Massachusetts in 1636. The rich meadows, overflowed by the spring freshet, being at this point of considerable width and free from forests, were particularly valuable to the first settlers. The population is largely agricultural, but the town is rapidly filling up at the centre with the residences of artisans and others from Hartford.-WINDSOR LOCKS, on the Connecticut river, 12 m. above Hartford, and on the New York, New Haven, and Hartford railroad, was a part of Windsor till 1854, when it was incorporated as a separate town; pop. in 1870, 2,154. It is supplied with water power by the Enfield Falls canal, and is largely engaged in manufacturing, having several paper mills, stockinet, silk, and cotton factories, steel works, iron foundery, &c. wind becomes excessive, the weights are by centrifugal force thrown outward, and the action draws the sail in toward the axis, where it can exert less effect, while the small weight slides up the link to allow of this; when the excessive impulse ceases, the heavier weight and link return to a more nearly vertical position, and the lighter weight, sliding down the link, returns the sail to the end of the arm. WINDS, Vinds, or Slovens (Slav. Sloventzi), a Slavic people inhabiting chiefly the rural districts of the Illyrian provinces of Cisleithan Austria. They are also designated as southern Wends, in contradistinction to the Wends of northern Germany. (See WENDS.) They belong to the Illyro-Servian branch of the Slavs, and their number in Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, and the Littorale amounts to about 1,200,000, besides whom there are some Winds in southwestern Hungary and in Friuli, Italy. Their relation to the Veneti of the ancients is a matter of learned controversy. (See VENETIA.) About A. D. 600 they appear in their present abodes, in warfare with the dukes of Bavaria, and subsequently with the margraves of Friuli. In the 8th century they became subject to the Frankish empire, and their territory, then often designated as Corutania, was constituted by Charlemagne a borderland under the name of the Windish March. This was subsequently broken up and largely Germanized. The oldest remnants of Windish or more properly Slovenish literature, consisting of religious pieces, date from the 10th century. The reformation gave new life to the Slavic vernacular in these regions, which did not entirely cease with the extirpation of Protestantism, and a new literary revival began toward the close of the 18th century. This movement, which was subsequently fostered by Kopitar and other writers, has of late also assumed a political form, allying itself to similar agita-bacco, leather, brooms, wooden ware, soap and tions in Croatia and other Slavic parts of the Austrian empire, and increasing its internal complications. WINDSOR, a S. E. county of Vermont, separated from New Hampshire by the Connecticut river; area, 900 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 36,063. It is mountainous on the W. border and hilly in other parts, and the soil is fertile. Granite, limestone, and soapstone are abundant. The county is traversed by the Vermont Central and the Connecticut and Passumpsic Rivers railroads. The chief productions in 1870 were 36,901 bushels of wheat, 278,736 of Indian corn, 283,740 of oats, 39,823 of buckwheat, 439,416 of potatoes, 1,083,207 lbs. of butter, 602,818 of wool, 788,558 of maple sugar, and 111,511 tons of hay. There were 7,334 horses, 13,864 milch cows, 19,419 other cattle, 117,277 sheep, and 4,815 swine. The whole number of manufacturing establishments was 467, having an aggregate capital of $2,569,990; value of products, $3,759,271. The most important were 11 manufactories of agricultural implements, 17 of carriages and wagons, 2 of cotton WINDSOR. I. A town and port of entry of Essex co., Ontario, Canada, on the Detroit river, opposite the city of Detroit, and at the W. terminus of the Great Western railway; pop. in 1871, 4,253. It contains several breweries and distilleries, and manufactories of to The candles, boots and shoes, wine, carriages, &c. WINDSOR, or New Windsor, a municipal and parliamentary borough and parish of Berkshire, England, on the brow of a hill above the right bank of the Thames, 23 m. W. of London; pop. within the municipal limits in 1871, 11,769. An iron bridge across the Thames connects Windsor with Eton. The | dence of the English monarchs, is E. of the town has a public ground, a handsome town hall, two churches, three dissenting chapels, two libraries, two hospitals, a dispensary and several other charitable endowments, charity and other schools, infantry barracks, and a theatre.-Windsor castle, the principal resi town. The buildings cover 12 acres of ground, surrounded by a terrace on three sides 2,500 ft. in extent. They stand in the midst of the "Little park," about 4 m. in circumference, connected by a long avenue of trees S. of the castle with the "Great park," 18 m. in circuit, W. of which is Windsor forest, with a circuit of 56 m. Windsor was a residence of the Saxon kings before the Norman conquest, but the present castle was founded by William the Conqueror, and almost rebuilt by Edward III., under the direction of William of Wykeham, and again in 1824-'8, under that of Sir Jeffrey Wyatville. St. George's chapel is an excellent specimen of the florid style of Gothic architecture. In the royal vault connected with the chapel, Henry VI., Edward IV. and his queen, Henry VIII. and Jane Seymour, Charles I., George III. and his queen, George IV., the princess Charlotte, the duke of Kent, the duke of York, William IV. and his queen, and other members of the royal family are interred. In the keep or round tower of the castle, sometimes used for royal prisoners, James I. of Scotland was confined. In the state rooms and corridor are many choice paintings, groups of statuary, &c. Frogmore, the favorite residence of Queen Charlotte and afterward of the duchess of Kent, ism. from Windsor. WINDWARD ISLANDS. See WEST INDIES. WINE (Heb. yain; Gr. olvos; Lat. vinum; Fr. vin; Ger. Wein), originally and properly, the name of the liquor obtained by fermentation of the juice of grapes; but, in later and less strict usage, denoting also certain beverages prepared in a similar manner from the juices of many other fruits. Wine is mentioned as a familiar thing in the earliest books of the Old Testament. According to certain traditions, the vine (vitis vinifera) had its origin in India, and was thence disseminated to western Asia, to northern Africa, and to Europe. The earliest wines were doubtless obtained by mere expression and fermentation of the grape juice; but modifications in the way of increasing the saccharine element by partial drying of the grapes, and of aiding the development of alcohol by heat, began very early to be introduced. Among the Greeks and Romans certain leaves or aromatic substances were infused in the expressed grape juice, or "must," for their flavors; and additions were sometimes made of salt, and of turpentine or other resins. In other instances, in order to give body and flavor to certain wines, a portion of must concentrated by boiling was, as at the present day, added to the fermenting juice. The effect of age in maturing wines and heightening their quality was also early understood. Homer speaks of wine in its 11th year; Athenæus and Horace commend wines of greater age; and Pliny relates that he had drunk of that which was 200 years old, and which was thick and harsh. The inferior wines were often used directly from the casks in which they were fermented; others were drawn off for keeping into earthen jars or wooden vessels; while, at least in later times among the Romans, the finest sorts were kept in flasks of glass. In the countries of the East, wine appears to have been transported chiefly in bags made of goat skins, and commonly also to have been kept in bottles of like material. Homer names two wines as highly celebrated in his time among the Greeks: the Pramnian, from grapes grown near Smyrna, and a wine from Ismarus in Thrace, which he describes as "luscious, pure, a drink for gods." At a later period, Lesbos, Chios, Cyprus, and other localities in and about Greece, but especially the slopes of Mt. Tmolus in Lydia, furnished choice wines. Of Roman wines, the earliest noted was the Cacuban, from near the site of the modern Fundi; and next, the Setinian, from the hills of Setia, above the Pontine marshes. The Falernian, however, so named from, the district on the banks of the Volturnus in which it was produced, became the most celebrated of all the Roman wines; this was deemed fit for use only after the 10th year; its color was a very light amber, and its strength is intimated by the fact stated by Pliny, that it was the only wine known to him which upon the touch of a flame took fire. The Romans at this period regarded the wines of Italy as the finest in the world, the district most productive of them being the volcanic region of Campania, including Fundi and Sorrento. The wines of Germany and Gaul had not at this time attained to any celebrity abroad, though Gallia Narbonensis was already notorious for the manufacture of spurious compounds in imitation of wine; while to Spain Pliny credits rather abundance than choiceness of vintages, and the wines of Africa he pronounces generally acid and thin. In the reign of the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII. a compilation was made, in the "Geoponics," of all that had been written upon the vine from the 1st to the 4th century of our era. Scarce ly one of the localities famous in Pliny's time for their superior wines produces at the present day a wine that is deservedly celebrated. The grape and wine making have in some degree extended to almost every portion of the earth in which the vine will flourish, including the islands of the Atlantic, Mexico, Australia, and parts of the United States and South America. (See GRAPE, and, for certain subjects directly related to the production of wine, ALCOHOL, BRANDY, DISTILLATION, FERMENTATION, TARTARIC ACID, and YEAST.)-The composition of grape juice varies not only with the variety of the vine, but among other circumstances also with the climate, the soil, the nature of the manures employed, the aspect and exposure of the vineyard, the character of the seasons, and the stage of partial or complete ripeness at which the gathering takes place. Besides water, which necessarily forms a large percentage of the juice, Mulder finds as its constituents sugar, gelatine or pectin, gum, fatty matter, wax, albumen, gluten, and tartaric acid, both free and combined with potash, soda, and lime; while generally, or in certain cases, small quantities also are present of racemic, malic, and perhaps citric acid, alumina, oxides of manganese and iron, sulphates of potash and soda, phosphate of lime and magnesia, and probably silica. Among peculiar constituents present in the skins are tannic acid and coloring matters; in the seeds, a fatty oil which can be separately extracted. The entire solid matters of the juice, the larger portion being sugar, may mount up in very ripe grapes to 40 per cent.; but most commonly the proportion is much less than this. The sugar is found to range from 13 to 30 per cent. of the weight of the juice. The vinous or alcoholic fermentation, that which is always first to occur in the grape juice, requires the presence of grape sugar dissolved in the water of the juice, as it naturally is; of a ferment, or substance capable of originating molecular change in the sugar; and of oxygen. (See FERMENTATION.) The beginning of fermentation in the grape juice, within a short period after it has been expressed, is shown by the rise through it of small bubbles of carbonic acid; and while the liquid becomes more turbid, as the bubbles ascend in greater quantity they form a froth upon its surface. Meanwhile the sugar of the juice diminishes, and alcohol takes its place; and the liquid gradually becomes more clear. Often this process continues for some months, the liquid being at intervals drawn off to free it of so much sediment as has fallen; when fermentation is completed, or in some instances a little before, it is transferred to casks to be stored, or at once exported. It has been found. that the amount of ferment material is nearly or quite the same in the juice of all grapes, while it is well known that the quantities of sugar and of acids vary greatly. In those varieties of the grape in which (and this is the case particularly with those grown in the warmer climates) the sugar is present in very large proportions, the supply of ferment is exhausted before the sugar is all changed; and the portion of sugar thus left in the wine renders it sweet, as in the wines commonly known as sweet or "fruity," or as rins de liqueur (not artificial). Of such wines, Tokay, Frontignan, Constantia, and Malmsey are examples. The excess of sugar in a wine also acts commonly to preserve it against the acetous fermentation; so that muscadine wine has been kept for 200 years, and Tokay at the age of a century is in its perfection. But in grapes in which, as is common in the cooler vine-growing latitudes, the proportion of sugar is small, this may be wholly decomposed and replaced by alcohol by the time the ferment is exhausted, or even before. The wines then produced are characterized by the alcohol, acids, and flavor without sweetness, and are called "dry." Sherry is one of the best examples of this sort. In cases in which the sugar is exhausted before the ferment, the practice of adding to the fermenting must another portion which has been greatly concentrated by boiling is often resorted to for the purpose of supplying the deficiency; and a wine otherwise dry and acid may thus be converted into one that is sweet. But in |