development here and in Canada began very early in the history of the colonies. The people of the northern states and of Canada were led to prefer driving to riding. The roads in summer and autumn were comparatively good. In winter the deep snows made sleighing rapid and easy, and a man who would have been frozen on horseback could travel comfortably in a sleigh. In the southern states the case was different. Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas produced blood horses, but no trotters. The fact that the early home of the fast trotter was the northern states and Canada shows that his excellence is the result of long use, and the inclination for that gait is now become partly hereditary. When the people of New York, New England, and Canada were driving rapidly and merrily to the music of the sleigh bells, and their horses were compelled to bend the knee to get over the snow among the pines, they were creating the possibility of future Flora Temples and Dexters. The best mares were selected to breed from, and the best stallion in the neighborhood was chosen for them. Races for small sums were made upon the road or upon the ice, and finally trotting tracks were established at such places as Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. Some of the best trotting mares were bred to the sons and grandsons of imported Messenger, and the strains of other blood horses in this country and Canada were also infused. The Arabian horse also entered into the composition of the trotter. The form best adapted for speed in horses was thus approached, and the nervous organization and clear wind which enable the horse to stay over a long distance of ground were acquired. Upon the nervous organization depends the great difference often found to exist between horses equally well bred and apparently equally well shaped. In the early days of the trotting turf most of the races were under the saddle. There were also many of two-, three-, and four-mile heats. After some time races in harness became more frequent, and those of three- and four-mile heats less so. The sulkies and skeleton wagons employed in the races were improved in construction and made lighter and truer. The tracks were laid out upon proper principles, and better cared for. The horses, regularly trained, and with the improved vehicles and tracks, displayed more and more speed, until Flora Temple finally beat 2 min. 20 sec. in harness. Even after that time races of two-mile heats and wagon races were common; but they have now almost wholly ceased. Associations make all the races mile heats, three in five, in harness. About the last of the great twomile-heat races and wagon races were those in which Dexter defeated Lady Thorn in 1866. It is to be regretted that all the trotting races should now be of one pattern. People have largely lost sight of the main things involved in the issue of a race, and care only for time by the watch, which is in truth the least impor

tant element in the matter. Some horses have beaten the best time made by other horses with whom they would have stood very little chance in a race together. The time test does more than justice to the horse tried by it, and less than justice to the horses of past years. All the improvements in tracks, vehicles, and mode of handling go to the aid of the latest comer. There is hardly a track in the country now so slow as that of Buffalo was when Dexter made his best recorded time, or so slow as the Fashion course was when he made his faster actual time. The new courses are very much faster, though they are of the right length measured three feet from the pole. The best recorded time for a mile in harness is now 2 min. 14 sec. made in a trial for time by Goldsmith Maid, in which she had no opponent. The fast trotter is not usually as tall as the running race horse, and many of the best have been rather under-sized. Flora Temple was not much more than 14 hands high; Ethan Allen is not 15; Goldsmith Maid is 15 and half an inch; Dexter is 15 and an inch. But George M. Patchen and Lady Thorn were 16 hands high, and Gloster, a famous fast horse that died in 1874 at San Francisco, was nearly 17 hands high. The Orloff trotter of Russia was a cross-bred horse when Count Orloff first exhibited him. It is believed to be now established as a breed, measurably capable of reproducing without reverting to the peculiar points of the original ancestors. The count at first made use of Arabian horses and of mares from Norway and Holland. The trotting habit was no doubt inherited from the mares, and improved by training. Afterward another Arab cross was employed, and one with the English thoroughbred horse. The speed of some of the Orloff trotters is good, and from their pictures they must possess a large amount of good blood.

TURGENEFF. I. Alexei, a Russian historian, born in 1785, died in Moscow in December, 1845. He was early engaged in collecting materials in foreign countries relating to the ancient history of Russia, and his researches resulted in the publication of Historia Russia Monumenta, under the auspices of an archæological government commission (2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1841-22; supplement, 1848). His letters to his brother were published in Leipsic (1872.) II. Nikolai, a Russian author, brother of the preceding, born in 1790, died in Paris in November, 1871. He studied in Göttingen, and after being employed in the civil service at St. Petersburg he was appointed in 1813 Russian commissary, in conjunction with the Prussian statesman Baron Stein, in provisional charge of the German provinces recovered from France. After returning to Russia he rose to be deputy secretary of the interior and agriculture, and became much interested in the emancipation of the serfs. This involved him in the revolutionary outbreak of 1825, and he was sentenced to death, but es

caped to Paris, where he spent the rest of his life. He wrote La Russie et les Russes (3 vols., Paris, 1847).

TURGENEFF, Ivan, a Russian novelist, born in Orel in November, 1818. He studied in Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Berlin, and in 1843 received a clerkship in the ministry of the interior. He was subsequently banished to the provinces on account of his liberal sentiments, and after several years was allowed to return to the capital; but he has since chiefly resided in Paris and Baden. He first made himself known by several works of poetry (1843-'4), but achieved much greater success by his "Memoirs of a Sportsman," an exquisite humorous picture of Russian rural life (2 vols., 1852), and subsequently by his "Fathers and Sons" (1862), "Smoke" (1867), and other novels. Most of his works, some of which he wrote in French, have been translated into English, German, and other languages. Among them are "Liza," "On the Eve," "Dmitri Rudin," "Journal of a Useless Man," and "A Lear of the Steppe."

TURGOT, Anne Robert Jacques, baron de l'Aulne, a French statesman, born in Paris, May 10, 1727, died there, March 20, 1781. He was educated for the church, and in 1749 became prior of the Sorbonne; but he abandoned the profession in 1752, studied law, and in 1753 became councillor in the parliament and master of requests. As early as 1745 he had published his Lettre sur le papier-monnaie, and he now applied himself to the study of natural philosophy, agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, publishing his views in papers in the Encyclopédie or in pamphlets. The most remarkable of these are his Lettres sur la tolérance (1753). In 1761 he was appointed intendant of Limousin, and introduced many reforms in the administration of that province; free transport was allowed to corn and breadstuffs, taxes were lessened, roads and highways improved, and workhouses and charitable institutions established. In 1771 appeared his Réflexions sur la formation et la distribution des richesses, his chief work on political economy. He also published papers on loans and on mines, and Lettres sur la liberté du commerce des grains. On the accession of Louis XVI. he was made comptroller general of finances, and undertook to improve the financial condition of the kingdom by freedom of labor at home and of trade abroad, and by substituting for taxes on a multitude of articles a single tax on land. These reforms were encouraged by the king, but were obnoxious to courtiers and many others. In 1775 he was charged with having caused scarcity by his regulations respecting the grain trade. In January, 1776, he caused an edict to be issued, abolishing compulsory labor for the state, internal duties on breadstuffs, the privileges of trading corporations, &c. But this only increased the number of his enemies; the privileged classes were so loud in their complaints

that the king was afraid to support his minister, and Turgot was dismissed in May. His Euvres complètes, published by Dupont de Nemours (9 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1808-'11), were reprinted under the supervision of Eugène Daire and Hippolyte Dusard (2 vols., 1843-'4). His biography was written by Condorcet (London, 1786).

TURIN (It. Torino). I. A N. W. province of Italy, in Piedmont, bounded W. by France; area, 4,068 sq. m.; pop. in 1872, 972,986. It is watered by the Po and its numerous affluents. The eastern and southern portions of the surface are level or hilly; the northern and western are traversed by lofty branches of the Pennine, Graian, and Cottian Alps, containing many glaciers. Among the principal products are wheat, maize, mulberries, melons, and hemp; in the valleys rice and silk culture, and in the mountains cattle raising and mining, are extensive. The province is divided into the districts of Turin, Pinerolo, Susa, Aosta, and Ivrea. II. A city, capital of the province, in a large plain enclosed by the Alps excepting on the northeast, at the junction of the Dora Riparia with the Po, 77 m.

S. W. of Milan; pop. in 1872, 212,644. It is remarkable for its fine bridges, that on the Dora forming a single arch, large squares and broad streets, the monuments and palaces in the new town, and its delightful promenades bordered by villas. Of the ancient walls, only the Porta Palatina and one or two other parts are now standing. The piazza Castello contains many public buildings, and is surrounded by palaces which extend along the via del Po to the collina di Torino, a pretty range of adjacent hills. The royal palace, on the N. side

of this square, is remarkable chiefly for its size, and for its large library and interesting armory. In the centre of the square is the old palace of the early dukes of Savoy, restored in 1718 for the mother of Victor Amadeus II. and since called palazzo Madama. On the N. W. tower of the palace is the royal observatory. Adjoining the same square are the military academy and the theatre. The piazza di San Carlo is almost surrounded by arcades. The oldest church is the cathedral, the finest is that of San Filippo. A Protestant church was opened in 1853. The academy of sciences contains the pinacoteca or royal picture gallery, with celebrated paintings, and the museums of antiquity and natural history. The university, founded early in the 15th century and reorganized in the 17th, has a magnificent building with a library of 200,000 volumes, increased in 1875 by Cavour's library, bequeathed to it by the marquis Ainardo Cavour. He also left 3,000,000 lire in real estate for the charity hospital, one of the largest of the numerous charitable institutions. A fine campo santo was opened in 1829. Despite the variable and occasionally rough climate, the mortality has lately averaged only 27-2 in 1,000, smaller than in other large towns of Italy. The chief

export is silk. The principal manufactures are silk goods, jewelry, furniture, pianofortes, and carriages.-Turin was originally settled by the Ligurian tribe of the Taurini, whence the name. It was conquered by Hannibal, and under Augustus became a Roman colony under the name of Augusta Taurinorum. In the 6th century it was the capital of a Lombard duchy; in the 8th Charlemagne made it the capital of the marquisate of Susa; and in the 11th century it became that of the house of Savoy. The French held the city at various periods, but their army under La Feuillade and Marsin was signally defeated here by the imperialists under Prince Eugene, Sept. 7, 1706. They occupied it in December, 1798, and Suvaroff in May, 1799; and the French again held it from 1800 to 1814, when it was restored to the Savoy dynasty. It was the capital of the kingdom of Sardinia till 1860, and subsequently of Italy till May, 1865.

TURKEY (meleagris, Linn.), a well known gallinaceous bird, the type of the family meleagrida, of the group alecteromorpha of Huxley. The bill is moderate and strong, shorter than the head, compressed on the sides, with culmen arched, and upper mandible overhanging the lower; the cere is elongated into a loose, pendulous, round, fleshy caruncle; head and upper neck bare, with only a few scattered hairs, and carunculated; base of lower mandible sometimes wattled; a tuft of long, black bristles on the breast, largest in the males; wing short and rounded, the first four quills graduated, and the fifth and sixth the longest; tail broad and rounded, pendent during repose, but capable of being raised and extended like a fan; tarsi robust, longer than middle toe, covered

in front with broad, divided scales, and armed with a short obtuse spur; anterior toes united at base by a membrane, the inner the shortest, the posterior moderate and elevated; claws short and slightly curved. All the species in the wild state are indigenous to North America. The common wild turkey (M. gallopavo, Linn.) is about 33 ft. long and 5 ft. in extent of wings, weighing from 15 to 20 lbs.; the naked skin of the head and neck is livid blue, and the excrescences purplish red; the general color is copper bronze, with green and metallic reflections, each feather with a velvet-black margin; quills brown, closely barred with white; tail feathers chestnut, narrowly barred with black, and the tip with a very wide subterminal black bar; the female is smaller and less brilliant, without spurs, often without bristles on the breast, and with a smaller fleshy process above the base of the bill. It has a crop and gizzard, and an intestine four times the length of the body; the cartilaginous tissue of the stomach is less hard than that of the common fowl. The full, plumage is attained at the third year; the females usually weigh

Wild Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo).

about 9 lbs. They fly in flocks of many hundreds, frequenting woods by day, feeding on acorns, all kinds of grain, buds, berries, fruits, nuts, grass, insects, and even young frogs; they make considerable journeys in search of food, flying and swimming across rivers a mile wide; though their flight is heavy, they are able to reach with ease the tops of the highest trees; they are so strong as not to be easily held when slightly wounded; they perch at night on trees. Quitting the woods in September, they come into the more open and cultivated districts, where they are killed in great numbers; they were formerly abundant in the middle, southern, and western states, but are now rare except in thinly settled regions, and have never been found west of the Rocky mountains. Although the turkey was exclusively an inhabitant of North America in its wild state, the earlier naturalists supposed it to be a native of Africa and the East Indies, and its common name is said to have arisen from the belief that it originated in Turkey; it was carried to England in the early part of the 16th century by William Strickland, lieutenant to Sebastian Cabot. Since that time it has been acclimated in most parts of the world, but the