rapidly push up and produce leaves and flower; it also contains, between the scales, another bud, which during the brief growing season, while the first named is blooming, will in Parrot Tulip. crease rapidly, replacing that, and be ready to bloom the next year; besides these, the bud of a third generation may be found, ready in time to take the place of the second bud. When a tulip bulb is planted, it produces its flower and leaves; its foliage, after flourishing for a while, suddenly dies off, and a bulb may be dug up apparently like the one planted; but that has been expended in producing the flower, and this bulb is due to the increase of the second or replacing bud, which will be found to contain the rudiments of next spring's bloom. At the base of the bulb appear small offsets or bulblets, which, if broken off and cultivated for several and the plants cultivated until the leaves fade, which they will do in a few weeks, when the bulbs are taken up, dried, and kept in a cool, dry place until time to plant again. Early sorts are often left in the ground year after year; and though they do not give so fine a bloom as when the bulbs are lifted, they make acceptable spring flowers. Like other bulbs, tulips are readily forced in the greenhouse or in window culture (see HYACINTH); the early sorts are preferred for this, and three bulbs may be put into a six-inch pot. TULIP TREE, the popular name for liriodendron tulipifera, a large tree of the magnolia family; one of its distinctive characters, its large and showy flowers, being recognized in its botanical and common names. The genus (named from Gr. Aíptov, a lily, and dévdpov, a tree) is exclusively American, and includes only this species. It is found from Canada to Florida, and is more abundant in parts of the west, as Michigan and southern Illinois, than at the east; with the exception of the buttonwood, it is the largest of our deciduous trees, reaching the height of 140 ft., with a diameter of 8 or 9 ft. The bark on young branches is by cutting off the flow-light brown and smooth, but on old trees it er buds as soon as is much broken by longitudinal fissures. In they appear.-In care- spring the development of no tree can be ful tulip culture, the studied with greater interest; as the large leaf bed is made very light buds open they are found to be covered by and rich, and the bulbs two stipules, coherent by their edges to form are set in October, 8 a sac, and beneath these the young leaf, to in. apart and 3 in. which they belong, will be found closely folded, deep; some take pains and its petiole bent over; beneath this is anto envelop each bulb other leaf similarly covered and packed away, in sand; the bed is and so on; as the leaf develops, the stipules covered with litter, increase in size, and soon fall away, leaving a and left until spring, scar just above the petiole. The leaves, on long when it is uncovered; petioles, are 4 in. or more across, with two Late or Show Tulip. as the flowers are lobes near the base and two at the apex, where about to open, the bed the leaf appears as if it had been abruptly cut is covered with an awning of cotton cloth, off, leaving a very broad, shallow notch. The to prevent the sun from injuring the flowers, flowers are solitary and terminal; the bud is and thus prolong their duration; when the enclosed by a sheath which is pushed off as bloom is over, the seed vessels are cut off, the flower opens; they consist of three long reflexed sepals, and six petals, which are ar- TULLIUS, Servius. See SERVIUS TULLIUS. ranged in two rows, to form a bell-shaped TULLOCH, John, a Scottish clergyman, born at corolla, 2 in. or more long, within which are Tibbemuir, Perthshire, in 1822. He was edunumerous stamens, surrounding a cone-like cated at the university of St. Andrews, and in mass of pistils crowded upon a long slender 1844 was ordained a minister of the church axis. In fruit the pistils ripen into woody one- of Scotland, with a charge at Dundee. Afteror two-seeded keys, which fall away from the ward he visited Germany, and studied specuaxis. The petals are greenish yellow, marked lative theology. In 1849 he removed to the with orange, and have an orange spot at the parish of Kettins in Forfarshire, and in 1854 base. The bark, especially that of the root, is was appointed principal of St. Mary's college bitter and aromatic, and sometimes used as a in the university of St. Andrews, which office stimulant tonic. The wood, often called white he still holds (1876). In 1855 he received a wood, though it becomes yellowish upon ex- Burnett prize of £600 on the "Being and Atposure, is soft and easily worked, and is put to tributes of God." He has published "Leadalmost as many uses as that of the white pine; ers of the Reformation" (1859); "English it is easily bent to any required shape, which Puritanism and its Leaders" (1861); "Beginmakes it useful in building circular staircases ning Life: Chapters for Young Men" (1862); and other curved work; it is much employed "The Christ of the Gospel and the Christ of in carriage building for panels, and in cabinet Modern Criticism: Lectures on M. Renan's work, especially for drawers. In localities Vie de Jésus" (1864); and “Rational Theology where it is the most available timber, it is em- and Christian Philosophy in England in the ployed in building. The western lumbermen | Seventeenth Century " (2 vols., 1872). almost invariably call the tree poplar ("popple") or yellow poplar; an unfortunate mis nomer, as it has no resemblance to or botanical relationship with the poplars. The tulip tree is pleasing when young, and when full grown forms a very stately object. There are several varieties in which the leaves deviate from the usual form, and one in which they are handsomely variegated with yellow; but the markings do not hold under our hot suns. Trees transplanted from the woods, unless they are very small, do not succeed, and this has given the impression that the tree is difficult to manage. It is easily raised from seeds, and nursery trees, produced in this way and transplanted a few times, may be removed without difficulty. TULL, Jethro, an English agriculturist, born about 1680, died in January, 1740. He owned an estate near Hungerford, on the borders of Oxfordshire and Berkshire, and observing the advantage of cultivation of plants in rows, and of stirring and pulverizing the soil between them, he introduced this system of cultivating the soil. But he adopted the erroneous principle that manure was not essential, as finely pulverized earth and moisture were sufficient for the growth of plants. This ruined him, and brought discredit upon his system. He published a treatise on his new mode of cultivation (1731), and detached essays, which were collected in 1751, and republished by William Cobbett in 1822. (See AGRICULTURE, vol. i., p. 203.) TULLE, a town of France, capital of the department of Corrèze, and formerly of Lower Limousin, at the junction of the Solane with the Corrèze, 115 m. E. N. E. of Bordeaux; pop. in 1872, 11,848. It has fine quays and promenades, a suburb, many bridges, a cathedral remarkable for its tower, and a celebrated government factory of firearms. Among its manufactures are paper, playing cards, nails, leather, and coarse woollens; and it has a trade in horses, game, and neatsfoot oil. TULLUS HOSTILIUS, the third king of Rome, said to have reigned from about 673 to about 641 B. C. The most memorable event of his reign, according to the legend, is the war with Alba, celebrated by the combat between the Horatii and the Curiatii, and the consequent acknowledgment by the Albans of Roman supremacy. In the war against Fidenæ, an Alban army was led to the assistance of Rome by Mettus Fuffetius, the Alban dictator, who intended to go over to the enemy at the critical moment. Tullus discovered the treachery, had the traitor torn in pieces from chariot wheels, razed Alba to the ground, and transferred the inhabitants to Rome, where the great mass of them became the Roman plebs. After these successes Rome was afflicted with a pestilence, and the king himself was seized with the disease. Having found the formula with which Numa had sacrificed to Jupiter Elicius, he attempted to call down the god, but fell into an error, and the god destroyed the king and his household by lightning. TULLY, William, an American physician, born in Saybrook, Conn., Nov. 18, 1785, died in Springfield, Mass., Feb. 28, 1859. He graduated at Yale college in 1806, studied medicine, and in 1808 settled at Milford, Conn. He removed about 1815 to Upper Middletown, now Cromwell, Conn., where he became intimate with Dr. Thomas Miner, whose views in relation to the nature and treatment of spotted fever he adopted; and in 1823 he published with him the essays known as "Miner and Tully on Fever." In 1824 he was elected president and professor of materia medica in the medical institution at Castleton, Vt. In 1827 he removed first to Albany, and afterward to Castleton. He was professor of materia medica in the medical institution of Yale college from 1830 to 1841, when he resigned. In 1851 he removed to Springfield, Mass., where he prepared a work on materia medica (vol. i. in 2 parts, Springfield, 1857-'60). TULTCHA, or Taltsha (anc. Egissus), a town of Bulgaria, on the right bank of the Danube, 6 m. above the junction of its Sulina and St. George's arms, 12 m. S. S. W. of Ismail, and 45 m. W. of Sulina; pop. variously estimated between 13,000 and 20,000. It is a port of considerable commercial importance. The former fortress was damaged by the Russians in 1789 and 1791, and utterly destroyed in 1828, after which the present town was laid out. It was occupied by the Russians during the spring of 1854. Darius crossed the Danube in the vicinity of ancient Egissus in his expedition against the Scythians. TUMOR (Lat. tumere, to swell), an excessive growth of tissue confined to a limited region, not inflammatory. Tumors are described as "benign" or "malignant," as "homologous" | or "heterologous." A benign tumor is one which does not, except by its mechanical action, interfere with life, and has generally no tendency to recur after removal. A malignant tumor is one produced by or inducing a constitutional taint, and usually reappearing after removal. A homologous tumor is one the structure of which is like tissues normally existing in the body. A heterologous tumor is one composed of tissues unlike to those normally present. Though a foundation of truth lies in this nomenclature of sufficient strength to have misled most physicians, our present knowledge of the histology and clinical histories of these growths has clearly shown that these distinctions are erroneous. The extremes are well marked, but the boundary line is irregular or confused. To what the growth of tumors can be ascribed is undetermined. That it is due to a perverted nutrition is certain, but how or why cannot be explained. The exciting cause is always mechanical, either from without or within the body; the predisposing cause, apart from heredity or mal-nutrition, specific or of other character, is obscure. With such a knowledge of tumors, an accurate classification is impossible, but one can be made which will greatly assist in the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of these growths, and also in the examination of their minute structures, viz.: 1, cystic tumors; 2, those made up of simple or composite tissues, aggregated or arranged as usually found in the adult body; 3, those made up of simple tissues, aggregated or arranged in a manner deviating widely from the normal, the cell element largely predominating. A cystic tumor is one having a limiting membrane which exists normally, or is formed by a condensation of surrounding tissue, or is a production of new tissue. The contents may be fluid or solid. Housemaids' knee is an example of a fluid cystic tumor, the limiting membrane of which exists normally. The sebaceous tumor of the scalp is an example of one which is solid, produced by an obstruction in its duct to the secretion of a gland. A blow on the head may cause an effusion of blood beneath the scalp, which, by its outward pressure and irritation, can produce and excite the formation of a cyst wall. In this class will be comprised most ovarian tumors, kidney cysts, congenital tumors containing hair, &c. To the second class belong all tumors of a fibrous, fatty, or cartilaginous nature, either alone or combined, and those made up of composite tissues, such as the vascular and glandular tumors. To the third class belong such growths as consist mainly of cells, or of cells mingled with other tissues in an irregular and abnormal manner: tubercle, sarcoma, cancer, &c. Making use of the terms employed in the nomenclature mentioned above, tumors in the first and second classes are homologous and generally benign; those in the third class are heterologous and as a rule malignant.-The chief interest, as regards prognosis, centres upon tumors of the third class. Opinion is divided as to whether cancer, using this term in its common signification, and taking this member of the class as the most important surgically, is primarily a local disease affecting the constitution only secondarily, or whether it is merely the local manifestation of a preexisting constitutional taint. TUNBRIDGE, or Tonbridge, a market town of Kent, England, on the Tun, near its entrance into the Medway, 11 m. S. W. of Maidstone; pop. in 1871, 8,209. It consists for the most part of one long and well built street, and contains six churches, an endowed grammar school lately rebuilt, and several literary and charitable institutions. There are ruins of a gateway flanked by round towers, once belonging to the castle built by the first earl of Clare and Hertford in the 11th century. The refectory of a priory founded by the same earl is still standing. Tunbridge has manufactures of gunpowder and fancy wooden wares, and a considerable trade in coal and lumber. TUNBRIDGE WELLS, a market town of Kent and Sussex, England, in a beautiful country, 15 m. S. W. of Maidstone; pop. in 1871, 19,410. It is a fashionable watering place, and consists chiefly of clusters of houses on detached eminences, and of a parade paved with pantiles in antique style, and lined with fine trees on one side, and on the other with assembly rooms, libraries, and shops. The surrounding country abounds in mineral springs. The one to which the place owes its origin is a light pure chalybeate, and the water is considered remarkably efficacious in cases of weak digestion. TUNGSTEN (Swed. tung, heavy, and sten, stone), a metal existing in the form of an acid combined with lime in the mineral scheelite or tungstate of lime, and also combined with iron and manganese in the mineral wolfram. Tungstic acid was discovered by Scheele in 1781, and metallic tungsten two years later by the brothers D'Elhujar. Its German name Wolframium gives its symbol, W. It is obtained as a heavy iron-gray metal, very hard and difficult of fusion, and of the high specific gravity 17-6, by intensely heating tungstic acid made into a paste with oil, in a crucible lined with charcoal, for some hours. The tungstic acid is procured by decomposing the tungstate of lime with hydrochloric acid, which dissolves the lime and leaves the tungstic acid. The chemical equivalent of tungsten is 184.-Tungsten combines with several other metals, forming alloys of interest. Its combination with cast iron is remarkable for its extraordinary hardness; and it is said that cast steel containing 10 per cent. of tungsten is greatly improved in tenacity, hardness, and susceptibility of taking a fine temper. Notwithstanding its reputed qualities, tungsten steel has not been generally introduced, and comparatively little is made. Of the two oxides of tungsten, WO, and WOs, the latter only, or tungstic anhydride, is of particular interest. This occurs native in bright yellow cubes, also as an earthy substance like ochre at Lane's mine, Monroe, Conn., Cabarrus co., N. C., and a few other places. But the usual form of the acid is in the combinations already named, and of these wolfram is the most common ore of the metal. This is a brownish black mineral, of metallic lustre, of hardness 5 to 55, and specific gravity 71 to 7:55. It is often found associated with tin ore in Cornwall, Saxony, Bohemia, and France. In the United States it has been found at Monroe, Conn., with native bismuth, galena, blende, &c.; also at Trumbull in the same state, and near Mine La Motte, Mo., and Blue Hill bay, Me. Tungstic acid is also found in combination with lead, forming the mineral scheeletine, and artificial tungstate of lead is prepared as a pigment resembling white lead. The following are some of the attempted applications of the compounds of tungsten to economical purposes: tungstic acid for coloring yellow; oxide of tungsten for coloring blue; tungstate of soda in dyeing and calico printing, and as a substitute for stannate of soda. The compounds of tungsten have been thoroughly studied by Roscoe and Zettnow, but none of them possess particular interest beyond those already described. TUNGUSES, a tribe of N. E. Siberia, of Mongolian origin, extending as far W. as the Yenisei and as far E. as Anadyrsk, in lon. 171°. They number about 70,000. Among their allied tribes are the Monzhurs and the Gilyaks and others of the Amoor. The Mantchoos belong to the Tungusic stock. The Tunguses proper and their congeners the Lamuts are well disposed, and mostly belong to the Greek church and pay tribute to the czar. They are generally divided into reindeer, horse, and dog Tunguses; but they are chiefly devoted to the reindeer, which they use for riding and for carrying freight, while other tribes use them chiefly in sledges. The Tunguses and the Lamuts are very slender, and have dark olive complexions, no beards, straight black hair, and oblique eyes. Men and women wear almost the same rich costume of fur hoods and pantaloons, short deer-skin boots, and highly ornamented buckskin aprons. They differ greatly from the Tchuktchis and Koriaks, though leading the same nomadic life; while among the latter there are men owning thousands of reindeers, one possessing 300 would be deemed immensely rich among the Tunguses. Unlike most other tribes, they never break up their tents without leaving a pole as a landmark for resuming the same habitation on returning from their wanderings. The Russian traders of the sea of Okhotsk derive most of their supply of Siberian squirrel skins for the European markets from the Tunguses and Lamuts in that region. TUNICA, a N. W. county of Mississippi, bordering on the Mississippi river, which separates it from Arkansas, and intersected by the Coldwater river and other streams; area, 750 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 5,358, of whom 4,127 were colored. The surface is flat, and in many places swampy, and the soil fertile. The chief productions in 1870 were 4,500 bushels of wheat, 2,000 of oats, 1,500 of barley, 82,155 of Indian corn, and 6,424 bales of cotton. There were 240 horses, 645 mules and asses, 413 milch cows, 1,409 other cattle, 33 sheep, and 1,812 swine. Capital, Austin. TUNICATES. See MOLLUSCOIDS. TUNIS. I. One of the Barbary states of N. Africa, bounded N. and E. by the Mediterranean, S. E. by Tripoli, S. by the desert of Sahara, and W. by Algeria, between lat. 32° 20′ and 37° 20′ N., and lon. 7° 20′ and 11° 30′ E.; extreme length about 350 m., general breadth 130 m.; area, about 45,000 sq. m.; pop. about 2,000,000. Besides the capital, of the same name, the chief towns are Kairwan, Susa, Hammamet, Bizerta, Kef, and Sfax. The coast line is irregular, and has three extensive indentations, forming the gulfs of Tunis, Hammamet, and Cabes (Syrtis Minor). The only considerable river is the Mejerda (anc. Bagradas), which falls into the gulf of Tunis after a N. E. course of about 200 m. Near its mouth, and for some distance W. of it, are several large lagoons. The Shot Kebir (anc. Palus Tritonis), over 100 m. long, and the Shot Gharnis, further W., over 50 m. long, in the southern part of the country near the Sahara, are marshy depressions which become nearly dry in summer. The interior of Tunis is but little known. The N. W. portion is mountainous, the summits having a height in many places of 4,000 or 5,000 ft. The mountains are well timbered, and have many tracts of cultivated land and olive plantations on their lower slopes. An extensive plain or table land, 100 m. long by 30 m. broad and quite level, extends from this region to the gulf of Hammamet; it is nearly destitute of trees, and is used by the Arabs for pasturing their horses and camels. S. of this plain the country is believed to be nearly desert, though in ancient times it was celebrated for its fertility. Silver, lead, and copper are found in the mountains. The climate is very healthful; rain falls at intervals between November and April, but | Hippo Zarytus (Bizerta), Hadrumetum, Lepdroughts prevail during the rest of the year. tis Minor, Thapsus, and Zama. In A. D. 429 Wheat, barley, and maize are raised, but dates it was taken by the Vandals, and a century furnish a great part of the subsistence of the afterward became subject to the Greek empire, inhabitants. Olives, tobacco, cotton, indigo, under which it remained till N. Africa was and various drugs and dyes are grown; and overrun by the Mohammedans in the latter the fruits of southern Europe are abundant. part of the 7th century. Early in the 13th The principal domestic animals are horned century it became independent. Louis IX. of cattle, mules, and camels; the breed of horses, France in 1270 made an unsuccessful crusaonce famous, has been allowed to degenerate. ding expedition against it, and died before the The tunny and sponge fisheries on the coast capital. In 1535 Charles V., after defeating are important. The lion, panther, lynx, ounce, the pirate Khair ed-Din Barbarossa and capwolf, and boar are the principal wild animals turing Goletta and the city of Tunis, made the found in the country.-The people of the in- country tributary to Spain; but in 1574 it was terior are principally Arabs and Kabyles, while conquered by the Turks. The Moors ultimatethose of the coast comprise Turks, Moors, ly enforced their right of electing their own Jews, and Christians, with various degrees of bey, agreeing only to pay a certain tribute to mixture. They are generally good-looking, the sultan at Constantinople. The pirates of but very ignorant. The language is a dialect Tunis subsequently became very daring, but of Arabic, but an Italian idiom is used by the in Cromwell's time received severe chastisetraders. The Arabs resemble the Bedouins of ment from the British under Admiral Blake, Arabia in their mode of life, but are inhospi- and afterward from France and Holland. In table to strangers. The Kabyles live on the 1816 the Tunisians agreed to renounce piracy mountains in villages of rudely constructed and Christian slavery. Under Ahmed Bey huts, and subsist chiefly on dates, bread, and (who succeeded in 1837) and his successors, milk. Arms are carried by all classes, and on Mohammed Bey (1855) and Mohammed Sadyk the borders of Algeria the inhabitants do not Bey (1859), various reforms were effected, inacknowledge allegiance to either government. cluding the suppression of the slave trade and The religion is strict Mohammedanism. The of many monopolies and oppressive taxes, the principal manufactures are woollen fabrics, establishment of military conscription and of particularly the red caps so much worn along mixed tribunals, and the creation of a municithe shores of the Mediterranean; considerable pal government for the capital. French influnumbers of skins are tanned and dyed; and ence has long been predominant in the countrade is carried on with Europe and the inte- try. II. A city (anc. Tunes or Tunis), capital rior of Africa. The government of Tunis, of the state, on the W. side of a lagoon near though nominally dependent on Turkey, and the mouth of the river Mejerda, connected called a regency, is in reality a perfectly inde- with the gulf by the narrow channel of Gopendent and absolute despotism. The sove- letta, 400 m. E. of Algiers, in lat. 36° 46' N., reign is known as the bey. He pays no trib- lon. 10° 9' E.; pop. estimated at 120,000. It ute, but is nominally restrained from making is surrounded by a double wall 5 m. in circuit, war or ceding territory without the consent of and defended by a strong castle, which comthe sultan. The Turkish law of succession to mands the approach from the sea, and by sevthe throne prevails. There are many ancient eral forts. Its appearance from a distance is ruins in different parts of Tunis, more particularly in the valley of the Mejerda, where at Dukhah (anc. Thugga) are temples, an arch, cisterns, baths, barracks, gates, theatres, an aqueduct, and many inscriptions. The great aqueduct which conveyed the water 52 m. from the mountain of Zagwam to Carthage can still be traced along the whole line, while some remaining portions rise to the height of 98 ft.-Under the Romans this country formed the province of Africa, and was divided into Zeugitana in the north and Byzacena in the south; and its most important cities were Carthage, Utica, VOL. XVI.-3 The Bey's Palace, Tunis. imposing, but the streets are narrow and dirty, and the houses generally consist of a single story without windows on the exterior. The town is well supplied with water. Among |